BGuthrie Photos: DC -- Natl Museum of the American Indian -- Exhibit: Why We Serve: Native Americans in the United States Armed Forces

DC -- Natl Museum of the American Indian -- Exhibit: Why We Serve: Native Americans in the United States Armed Forces:

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Description of Pictures: Why We Serve: Native Americans in the United States Armed Forces
November 10, 2021–November 30, 2023
This poignant exhibition tells personal stories of Native Americans, Native Hawaiians, and Alaska Native veterans who have served in the armed forces of the United States—often in extraordinary numbers—since the American Revolution. For some, the Indigenous commitment to the U.S. military doesn’t make sense. Why would Native people serve a country that overran their homelands, suppressed their cultures, and confined them to reservations? Why We Serve brings long overdue recognition to the Native veterans who have served their country selflessly and with honor for more than 250 years.

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Copyrights: All pictures were taken by amateur photographer Bruce Guthrie (me!) who retains copyright on them. Free for non-commercial use with attribution. See the [Creative Commons] definition of what this means. "Photos (c) Bruce Guthrie" is fine for attribution. (Commercial use folks including AI scrapers can of course contact me.) Feel free to use in publications and pages with attribution but you don't have permission to sell the photos themselves. A free copy of any printed publication using any photographs is requested. Descriptive text, if any, is from a mixture of sources, quite frequently from signs at the location or from official web sites; copyrights, if any, are retained by their original owners.

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Specific picture descriptions: Photos above with "i" icons next to the bracketed sequence numbers (e.g. "[1] ") are described as follows:
1. YSERVE_220206_006.JPG: Why We Serve Native Americans in the United States Armed Forces Why We Serve honors the generations of American Indian, Alaska Native, and Native Hawaiian members of the United States Armed Forces, and commemorates the National Native American Veterans Memorial at the National Museum of the American Indian in Washington, DC.
2. YSERVE_220206_012.JPG: "I found out I am not only fighting for the little bitty piece of land I talk about, [or] my immediate family. I found out I was fighting for all the Indian people, all the people of the United States." -- Samuel Tso (Navajo), United States Marine Corps Why We Serve honors the generations of Native Americans who have served in the armed forces of the United States—often in extraordinary numbers—since the American Revolution. For some, the Indigenous commitment to the U.S. military doesn’t make sense. Why would Indians serve a country that overran their homelands, suppressed their cultures, and confined them to reservations? Native people have served for the same reasons as anyone else: to demonstrate patriotism or pursue employment, education, or adventure. Many were drafted. Yet tribal warrior traditions, treaty commitments with the United States, and responsibility for defending Native homelands have also inspired the enduring legacy of Indigenous military service. Why We Serve commemorates the National Native American Veterans Memorial, dedicated at the National Museum of the American Indian in Washington, DC.
3. YSERVE_220206_023.JPG: Cultures of War For thousands of years, American Indians have protected their communities. A warrior’s customary role, however, involved more than fighting. Warriors cared for families in need and helped during difficult times. They did anything to ensure their people’s survival, including laying down their lives. Many American Indians view service in the U.S. Armed Forces as a continuation of the customary role. Not every tribe had a warrior tradition; many have had distinctly pacific practices, and most balanced warfare with traditions of diplomacy and peace. Many Native nations have considered war a negative force that throws nature and communities out of balance, requiring ceremony to restore equilibrium. For individuals, ceremonies offer protection in battle and cleansing upon return to help manage the physical and psychological damage caused by combat. Families and communities often participate in ceremonies to express support, recognize sacrifice, and encourage the warrior’s return to everyday life.
4. YSERVE_220206_027.JPG: Origins of Native American Military Service Native American involvement in U.S. military campaigns dates to the American Revolution. Most Native nations attempted to remain neutral or sided with the British, with whom they maintained important trading relationships and military alliances. Some tribes, including Oneidas, Tuscaroras, and Stockbridge-Munsees, opted to fight for the Americans. Following the American victory over Britain, Native nations lost access to powerful European allies and stood alone to face the land-hungry United States. During the War of 1812, many Native nations again supported Great Britain, still considered their last, best hope for stemming the tide of American settlement. After defeating Britain in 1814, Americans moved aggressively to acquire Native American homelands, laying the foundation for the tribal removals that dislocated Indian life in the decades preceding the Civil War.
5. YSERVE_220206_031.JPG: “An Indian of the Stockbridge Tribe,” Kingsbridge, New York, 1778. Sketch by Lieutenant General Johann von Ewald, Schleswig J�ger Corps (1744–1813). Pen and ink. The Stockbridge Indians of western Massachusetts, a refugee community of Mohican, Housatonic, and Wappinger peoples, fought bravely for the cause of independence during the American Revolution. This sketch, by Captain Johann von Ewald, a Hessian officer who fought for Britain, depicts what a Stockbridge warrior would have worn and carried into battle.
6. YSERVE_220206_033.JPG: John William Gear, Push-ma-ta-ha, 1838. Copy after Henry Inman and Charles Bird King, hand-colored lithograph on paper. During the War of 1812, Choctaw Chief Pushmataha (ca. 1760–1824) and his warriors engaged and routed anti-American Muscogees, known as the Red Sticks, and joined U.S. forces under the command of General Andrew Jackson to defeat the British at the Battle of New Orleans. In recognition of his service, the United States presented Pushmataha with a full-dress military uniform, such as the one shown here. When he died in 1824 during a diplomatic visit to Washington, more than two thousand people followed the cortege to his funeral at Congressional Cemetery.
7. YSERVE_220206_038.JPG: Polly Cooper (Oneida) accompanied Oneida troops who brought food and supplies to relieve starving American soldiers during the winter of 1777–1778 at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. She gave the army white corn and taught them how to prepare it. Cooper remained at Valley Forge through the winter as General Washington’s cook. For her efforts, she was gifted a shawl by the officers’ wives, which still resides in the hands of her descendants today. Oneidas participated in battles prior to and after Valley Forge as scouts, spies, and soldiers, giving significant aid to the revolutionary cause.
8. YSERVE_220206_044.JPG: Civil War Native American allegiances varied during the Civil War, but were often motivated by a common desire to protect tribal lands and lifeways. Approximately 3,503 Native Americans served in the Union Army. Though exact numbers are not known, many more Native people allied with the Confederacy. Even more participated indirectly, aiding or sabotaging one side or another while remaining outside the military. Having survived removal from their ancestral homelands in the Southeast in the 1830s and ‘40s, the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Muscogee (Creek), Choctaw, and Seminole Nations signed Confederate treaties that guaranteed title to territories west of the Mississippi. Elite tribal members’ enslavement of African Americans further motivated Southern allegiance. Native nations supporting the Union likewise hoped their service would encourage the federal government to honor treaties that recognized tribal land rights. The war exacted a terrible toll on Indigenous people. One-third of all Cherokees and Seminoles in Indian Territory died from violence, starvation, and war-related illness. Despite their sacrifice, American Indians would discover that their tribal lands were even less secure after the war.
9. YSERVE_220206_053.JPG: General Ulysses S. Grant (fourth from left) and his staff, including Lieutenant Colonel Ely S. Parker (second from the right), late spring, 1864.
10. YSERVE_220206_058.JPG: Ely S. Parker, 1860–65. At the Confederate surrender at Appomattox in 1865, Ely S. Parker (Seneca, 1828–1895) was the highest-ranking American Indian in the Union army, a lieutenant colonel. As General Ulysses S. Grant’s secretary, he drafted the terms of surrender. A popular story states that Confederate General Robert E. Lee, noticing that Parker was an American Indian, remarked, “I am glad to see one real American here.” Parker later recalled, “I shook his hand and said, 'We are all Americans.'”
11. YSERVE_220206_065.JPG: William Terrill Bradby, dressed traditionally and holding a club, October 1899. William Terrill Bradby (Pamunkey, 1833–?) and other men from Virginia’s Pamunkey and Mattaponi Nations served as river pilots, land guides, and spies for the Union army during the 1862 Peninsular Campaign. They piloted steamers, tugboats, gunboats, and torpedo boats during the remainder of the Civil War.
12. YSERVE_220206_069.JPG: Stand Watie, 1860–1865. Stand Watie (or Degataga, Cherokee, 1806–1871) was elected principal chief of the Confederate-aligned Cherokee and awarded the rank of brigadier general—the only American Indian to achieve that rank in the Civil War—as commander of the Indian Cavalry Brigade, which included the First and Second Cherokee Cavalry, the Creek Squadron, the Osage Battalion, and the Seminole Battalion.
13. YSERVE_220206_075.JPG: Wounded American Indian Union sharpshooters rest beneath a tree at Brompton, the home of John L. Marye, in Fredericksburg, Virginia, May 14, 1864. Five days earlier, the First Michigan Sharpshooters, including Company K, had been heavily engaged at the Ni River during the Battle of the Spotsylvania Courthouse; the casualties were evacuated to Fredericksburg. Captain Edwin V. Andress is sitting under the tree facing forward; though non-Native, Andress spoke a number of Michigan Indian language dialects and recruited many of the Native sharpshooters. Sergeant Thomas “Ne-o-de-geshik” Ke Chittigo (Chippewa, 1836–1916), wounded on May 12, is seen standing to the right of the tree.
14. YSERVE_220206_102.JPG: Army Scouts 1866–1890 In 1866, Congress authorized the enlistment of up to 1,000 American Indians to serve as scouts for the U.S. Army. With ranks reduced by post-Civil War demobilization, the army struggled to deal with thousands of Native warriors who had taken up arms to protect their lands and people across more than half the continental United States. Indian scouts belonged to the Pawnee, Apache, Crow, Shoshone, Tonkawa, and many other nations. Familiar with both the terrain and fighting prowess of rival tribes, scouts served as guides, trackers, guards, and fighters, becoming indispensable allies in army campaigns. Army service enabled Native people to earn a living as well as exercise warrior traditions increasingly discouraged by U.S. officials. Scouting also offered Native men an opportunity to battle enemy tribes—an incentive that overrode any broader allegiance to Indian solidarity. Most significantly, scouts were positioned by the army to convince militant members of their own tribes to lay down their arms and move to a reservation, thereby preventing further bloodshed. For their service, sixteen American Indian scouts were decorated with the Medal of Honor.
15. YSERVE_220206_111.JPG: General George Crook, wearing his campaign outfit and riding his mule in Arizona Territory, 1885. With him is Chiricahua Apache scout Ba-Keitz-Ogie (Yellow Coyote, ca. 1855–1893), at left, and Alchesay (1853–1928), a White Mountain Apache scout who earned the Medal of Honor during Crook’s campaign against the Chiricahua. Alchesay participated in Geronimo’s surrender to Crook in March 1886, serving as the Chiricahua Apache leader’s appointed translator.
16. YSERVE_220206_114.JPG: Curley (Aps�alooke [Crow], 1856–1923), also known as Curly, Shi-Shia. Curley was one of six Crow scouts assigned to Lieutenant Colonel George A. Custer’s command when the men of the U.S. Seventh Cavalry rode to their deaths at the Little Bighorn, in Montana, on June 25, 1876. Although Curley did not participate in the battle, journalists frequently later hounded him for details about “Custer’s Last Stand.”
17. YSERVE_220206_121.JPG: Scouts from the Warm Springs Reservation in north-central Oregon at ease during the “Modoc War” (1872–1873). The men were recruited by the United States Army to pursue a group of Modoc people who had left their reservation in Oregon and returned to their homelands in northern California.
18. YSERVE_220206_124.JPG: Spanish-American War During the Spanish-American War (1898), Native Americans served in the First Territorial Volunteer Infantry and, most famously, the First Volunteer Cavalry, also known as the Rough Riders. Mustered by future president Theodore Roosevelt, the Rough Riders were a motley 1,000-man unit that included, among others, Cherokees, Chickasaws, and Pawnees from Indian Territory. The Native Rough Riders served bravely in Cuba—a fact Roosevelt celebrated in his later writings. Less clear is why Native men volunteered for service. One Cherokee soldier, known only by his surname, Holderman, explained that “his people had always fought when there was a war, and he could not feel happy to stay at home when the flag was going into battle.” William Pollock, a Pawnee Rough Rider, struck a similar note: “[I]n the memory of our brave fathers I will try and be like one of them, who used to stand single-handed against the foes.”
19. YSERVE_220206_129.JPG: Bankston Johnson, 1898. Bankston Johnson (Choctaw, 1862?–?) was a trooper in Theodore Roosevelt’s First Volunteer Cavalry Regiment, popularly known as the Rough Riders.
20. YSERVE_220206_140.JPG: William Pollock (Pawnee, 1870–1899), one of Roosevelt’s most respected Rough Riders, ca. 1898. One of eight Pawnee men to enlist in the Rough Riders, Pollock fought gallantly during the famous charge up San Juan Hill. Returning home to Oklahoma, Pollock was honored as a warrior by his people, who gifted him with horses at a community gathering. Barely six months later, at age twenty-eight, Pollock succumbed to pneumonia, complicated by malaria contracted in Cuba. Theodore Roosevelt expressed his condolences to the family, noting that Pollock “conferred honor by his conduct not only upon the Pawnee tribe, but upon the American army and nation.”
21. YSERVE_220206_146.JPG: Father Craft and four members of the Congregation of American Sisters at Pinar del Rio, Cuba, about 1899. Left to right: Annie Pleets (Sister Mary Bridget), Ellen Clark (Sister Mary Gertrude), Father Francis M. Craft, Josephine Two Bears (Sister Mary Joseph), and Susie Bordeaux (Mother Mary Anthony). Four Lakota nuns who served during the Spanish–American War are the first known Native American army nurses. The women belonged to the Congregation of American Sisters on the Fort Berthold Indian Reservation in North Dakota, founded by Father Francis M. Craft. It was Craft who offered the services of the four nuns to the war effort in 1898. The nuns were much beloved by the soldiers and praised by the Surgeon General as “the only Sisters who came with the Army to Cuba, and remained.”
22. YSERVE_220206_153.JPG: World War I When the U.S. entered World War I in April 1917, many Native Americans welcomed the opportunity to serve in the armed forces. By September, nearly 12,000 men had registered for military service. Native women also volunteered and served as army nurses in France. Approximately 10,000 American Indians joined the Red Cross, collecting money and donating supplies to support the war effort. All this when one third of American Indians remained unrecognized as U.S. citizens. American Indians were members of the first U.S. combat units to reach France in 1917; they fought in every critical engagement until the war ended in 1918. About 5 percent of Native American soldiers were killed, compared to 1 percent of U.S. forces as a whole. Indigenous people fought during World War I to demonstrate their patriotism, prove themselves in battle, and defend democracy in Europe. After the war, many expected the United States to reward their service by extending citizenship to all Native people and by respecting tribal lands and autonomy. Congress granted citizenship in 1924, but Native people would have to fight in other American wars before the federal government adopted a policy of tribal self-determination.
23. YSERVE_220206_157.JPG: Joseph Oklahombi (Choctaw, 1895–1960), right, with John Golombie (Chickasaw) and Czarina Colbert Conlan (Choctaw/Chickasaw) at Oklahombi’s home. Near Wright City, Oklahoma, May 12, 1921. Joseph Oklahombi was the most highly decorated Native American serviceman during World War I. He received a Silver Citation Star and the Croix de Guerre, France’s highest military honor for gallantry, after he and twenty-three other men rushed a German stronghold near Saint-Etienne in October 1918, capturing 171 prisoners and killing about 79.
24. YSERVE_220206_162.JPG: Charlotte Edith Anderson Monture (Six Nations of the Grand River, 1890–1996), 1919. Edith Monture was the first Native Canadian registered nurse. After Indian Act restrictions of her era prevented her from pursuing professional training in Canada, she sought nurse’s training in the United States. In 1917, at the age of twenty-seven, she volunteered for the U.S. Medical Corps and served in a hospital in France, treating soldiers who had been shot or gassed. She was the only Native woman among the fourteen Canadian nurses who served in the U.S. Army Nurse Corps during World War I.
25. YSERVE_220206_166.JPG: Amado Garcia (Acoma Pueblo), Camp Dix, New Jersey, May 17, 1919. Amado Garcia enlisted in the United States Army on June 3, 1918, in Lamar, Colorado. He was decorated with the French Croix de Guerre with Gilt Star for his actions in Fismes, France. With two other men from his unit, Garcia advanced three hundred yards through barbed wire under heavy fire, capturing enemy guns, and returned unwounded to Allied lines.
26. YSERVE_220206_172.JPG: American Indian students from Carlisle Indian Industrial School. Hog Island Shipyard, Pennsylvania, September 4, 1918. Native people served the war effort in many different ways, including working in defense industries. These students from the Carlisle boarding school in Pennsylvania built ships during World War I.
27. YSERVE_220206_179.JPG: Code Talkers During World Wars I and II, hundreds of Native American servicemen from more than twenty tribes used their Indigenous languages to send secret, coded messages enemies could never break. Known as code talkers, these men helped U.S. forces achieve military victory in some of the greatest battles of the twentieth century. The first Native code talkers served during World War I, using tribal languages to transmit messages that German eavesdroppers found impossible to decipher. The code talkers of 1918 made a lasting impression on the U.S. military. Consequently, in 1940 and 1941, the army recruited Comanche, Meskwaki, Chippewa, and Oneida language speakers to train as code talkers; they later added eight Hopi speakers. In April 1942, the Marine Corps trained twenty-nine Navajo men in combat and radio communications. They went on to serve as the foundation of the largest code-talking program in the military. Ultimately, approximately 534 American Indian code talkers were deployed in World War II. The U.S. Marine Corps, which operated the largest code-talking program, sent approximately 420 Din� (Navajo) language speakers to help win the war in the Pacific. In Europe, Comanche code talkers participated in the D-Day invasion of Nazi-occupied France as well as many of the major campaigns that crushed the Third Reich. "All the services, like the army, and divisions and companies, and battalions, regiments . . . we just gave them clan names. Airplanes, we named after birds . . . like the buzzard is bomber, and the hawk is a dive bomber, and the patrol plane is a crow, and the hummingbird is the fighter." -- William McCabe, (Din� [Navajo]) United States Marine Corps
28. YSERVE_220206_182.JPG: Choctaw telephone squad, returned from fighting in World War I. Camp Merritt, New Jersey, June 7, 1919. From left: Corporal Solomon Bond Louis, Private Mitchell Bobb, Corporal James Edwards, Corporal Calvin Wilson, Private Joseph (James) Davenport, Captain Elijah W. Horner. In addition to Choctaw language speakers, Ho-Chunks, Eastern Cherokees, Comanches, Cheyennes, Yankton Sioux, and Osages were among the Native men who served as code talkers during World War I.
29. YSERVE_220206_187.JPG: Meskwaki code talkers, February 1941. Top, left to right: Judie Wayne Wabaunasee, Melvin Twin, Dewey Roberts Sr., Mike Wayne Wabaunasee; Bottom: Edward Benson, Frank Jonas Sanache Sr., Willard Sanache, Dewey Youngbear. The men were assigned to the 168th Infantry, 34th Red Bull Division and were sent to North Africa, where they participated in the attacks on Italy under heavy shelling. Three of the men were captured and confined to Italian and German prison camps.
30. YSERVE_220206_191.JPG: Navajo code talkers Corporal Henry Bahe Jr. and Private First Class George H. Kirk. Bougainville, South Pacific, December 1943. Dispersed across six marine divisions fighting in the Pacific, the Navajo radiomen saw action in many pivotal battles, including Guadalcanal, Bougainville, Tarawa, Makin, Kwajalein, Eniwetok, Saipan, Guam, Tinian, Peleliu, Iwo Jima, and Okinawa.
31. YSERVE_220206_196.JPG: Wayne Cooper, Indian Code Talkers, 2000. Oil on canvas. The painting depicts code talker Charles Chibitty (Comanche) after landing at Utah Beach during World War II.
32. YSERVE_220206_203.JPG: World War II American Indians enlisted in overwhelming numbers after the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941. Forty-four thousand of an estimated Native American population of under 400,000 saw active duty, including nearly 800 women—between 5 to 10 percent of the entire Indigenous population. Native people cited multiple reasons for volunteering for military service, including a powerful commitment to protect their country—both the United States and their ancestral homelands—from enemy invaders. Native servicemen fought in many of the war’s pivotal military campaigns. The war had a significant and lasting impact on Indian Country. Approximately 150,000 American Indians participated in military service or agricultural and industrial jobs to support the war effort. The exodus from reservations, which accelerated after the war, eroded the physical boundaries that separated Native peoples from mainstream America. The war also gave rise to a growing sense of expectation. Having answered the call of duty, many veterans began to advocate for a new day, when America would honor tribal treaty rights and allow Indians to live in their own way. "We are doing our best to win the war to be free from danger as much as the white man. We are fighting with Uncle Sam’s army to defend the right of our people to live our own life in our own way." -- Lewis Naranjo (Santa Clara Pueblo)
33. YSERVE_220206_207.JPG: The historic photograph by Joe Rosenthal, taken on February 23, 1945, depicts five marines and a navy corpsman raising a U.S. flag atop Mount Suribachi during the battle for the island of Iwo Jima in World War II. Corporal Ira Hamilton Hayes (Pima, 1923–1955) remains one of the best-known American Indians to serve in World War II. In 1945, Hayes was one of six servicemen who raised the American flag during the Battle of Iwo Jima in the South Pacific—a moment captured in a celebrated photograph (Hayes appears on the far left). The men became national heroes.
34. YSERVE_220206_212.JPG: Ira Hayes, age nineteen, at the United States Marine Corps Parachute Training School, where he was dubbed Chief Falling Cloud. San Diego, California, 1943.
35. YSERVE_220206_217.JPG: Ernest Childers (Muscogee [Creek], 1918-2005), receives the Congressional Medal of Honor from Lieutenant General Jacob L. Devers (left). Fifth Army headquarters, April 8, 1944. Lieutenant Childers earned the medal of honor for wiping out two German machine gun nests near Oliveto, Italy, while working under heavy enemy fire, as well as killing enemy snipers and capturing an artillery observer.
36. YSERVE_220206_222.JPG: As soldiers of the 42nd and 45th Infantry Divisions of the Seventh United States Army arrived, prisoners at the Dachau concentration camp rejoiced in their freedom by raising a homemade American flag. Dachau, Germany, April 30, 1945. The 45th Infantry Division, known as the Thunderbirds for their distinctive insignia, became one of America’s most acclaimed World War II combat units. American Indians made up about one-fifth of the 45th, including three who received the Medal of Honor: Jack Montgomery (Cherokee, 1917–2002), Van T. Barfoot (Choctaw, 1919–2012), and Ernest Childers. General George Patton said to the Thunderbirds, “You are one of the best, if not the best, divisions in the history of American arms.”
37. YSERVE_220206_228.JPG: Native Women and World War II The war offered unprecedented opportunities to Native women. About 800 were accepted into the WACs (Women’s Army Corps) and WAVEs (Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service, a naval reserve), some serving for the duration of the war and beyond. Women joined the military for many of the same reasons as Native men: to demonstrate patriotism, protect tribal communities, and win the war. Some joined to escape poverty. “One thing about the service,” observed Marge Pascale (Ojibwe), a member of the WACs, “you get two pair of shoes and you get a bed and you get to eat.” As many as one in four Native American women found work on assembly lines and factories in faraway cities. Defense companies trained women for welding and machine-shop jobs, and thousands worked in aircraft and other defense plants on the West Coast. With a shortage of male labor, Native women on reservations confronted new challenges and embraced novel opportunities. In Wisconsin, Menominee women worked in their nation’s sawmill. Pueblo women drove trucks, hauling freight. For some, wartime meant joining a domestic defense unit. Said one Ojibwe woman, “We have rifles, we have ammunition, and we know how to shoot.” "It is with much pride that the Indian woman dons the uniform of her country . . . The Redman is proving to his white brother that he can make an outstanding contribution, both on the home front and behind the firing lines. With the same pride and devotion, the Indian woman is proving herself to be one of Uncle Sam’s priceless daughters." -- Margie Williams (Lakota Sioux), Haskell Indian School graduate, 1943.
38. YSERVE_220206_234.JPG: Marine Corps Women Reservists, Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, October 16, 1943. From left: Minnie Spotted Wolf (Blackfoot), Celia Mix (Potawatomi), and Viola Eastman (Chippewa).
39. YSERVE_220206_238.JPG: Grace Thorpe (Sac and Fox, 1921–2008) at work in General MacArthur’s headquarters in Tokyo, Japan, in December 1945. The daughter of famed athlete Jim Thorpe (Sac and Fox, 1888–1953), Grace served in the WACs as a recruiter before being sent overseas to New Guinea, the Philippines, and Japan in 1944. Corporal Thorpe was later awarded the Bronze Star for her service in the Battle of New Guinea. Following the end of the war, Thorpe remained in Japan and worked at General MacArthur’s headquarters as chief of the Recruitment Section, Department of Army Civilians. After returning home to Oklahoma, she served as a tribal district court judge, health commissioner, and activist.
40. YSERVE_220206_244.JPG: World War II war bonds poster featuring work by Native artists from the Santa Fe Indian School, 1942. Made by Eva Mirabal (Taos Pueblo, 1920–1968), Ben Quintana (Cochiti Pueblo, 1923–1944), and Charles Pushetonequa (Sauk and Fox, 1915–1987) for the Government Printing Office. Ink on paper, 95.7 � 60.9 cm. NMAI 26/9677 Eva Mirabal of Taos Pueblo served as an artist in the WACs where she worked on murals and created the comic strip “G.I. Gertie.” After completing her service, Mirabal used her G.I. benefits to study at the Taos Valley Art School.
41. YSERVE_220206_253.JPG: Alaska Territorial Guard More than 6,300 Alaska Natives from 107 communities volunteered to serve in the Alaska Territorial Guard (ATG) during World War II. Assembled to defend against potential Japanese invasion, the “Eskimo Scouts” were the U.S. military’s eyes and ears along the territory’s 6,640-mile coastline. Alaska Natives were well prepared for the task. Equipped with unsurpassed knowledge of the territory’s challenging terrain and acclimated to its unforgiving weather, both men and women were veteran hunters and trackers who knew how to shoot a rifle. Four Alaska Territorial Guardsmen raising their right hand and being sworn in by a military officer in Alaska Men as old as eighty and as young as twelve volunteered, as did more than twenty-seven women. All were instructed in military drill and communications systems and how to identify enemy ships and aircraft. Among other achievements, they were instrumental in spotting and shooting down Japanese incendiary balloon bombs that traveled the jet stream. After their wartime service, ATG veterans organized a campaign to end the segregation of Alaska’s Indigenous people. The veterans and their supporters successfully persuaded the territorial legislature to approve Alaska’s first antidiscrimination law.
42. YSERVE_220206_256.JPG: Magnus Colcord “Rusty” Heurlin (1895–1986), Alaska Territorial Guard poster, ca. 1942. This artwork was used nationwide as a war-bond-drive poster.
43. YSERVE_220206_260.JPG: A military officer swearing in four Alaska Territorial Guardsmen at noon for an assignment in Barrow, Alaska, on the shore of the Arctic Ocean.
44. YSERVE_220206_266.JPG: Residents of Alaska’s Pribilof Islands, located in the Bering Sea between the United States and Russia, gaze at their homes as the USS Delarof pulls away from the dock at Saint Paul Island in 1942. In response to Japanese attacks on the Aleutian Islands, including the seizure of Attu and Kiska, U.S. authorities evacuated the islands’ Aleut people. Ushered aboard cramped transport ships, the displaced families were transported to southeastern Alaska, where they were resettled in fish canneries, abandoned mine buildings, and other substandard and unsanitary quarters. Approximately 100 of the 881 interned evacuees died by war’s end.
45. YSERVE_220206_269.JPG: A group of about fifty people, possibly the ATG, posing for a winter photograph in Barrow. The military men appear to be from the United States Navy.
46. YSERVE_220206_274.JPG: Korea Many of the 10,000 Native Americans who served during the Korean War (1951–1953) had seen action in World War II. Accustomed to military discipline, they reenlisted to serve their country as well as secure a paying job. Others, particularly young men fresh out of high school, were drafted. Native Americans participated in some of the war’s toughest battles. Many were decorated, including five American Indians and two Native Hawaiians who were awarded the Medal of Honor. Approximately 194 Native servicemen never came home. Some veterans returned to their tribal communities and became active in revitalizing traditional ceremonies long suppressed by the U.S. government. Their actions reflected a growing conviction in Indian Country: Native people would honor their duty as American citizens while also remaining faithful to their Indigenous way of life. "People ask me, ‘Why did you go? Look at all the mistreatment that has been done to your people.’ Somebody’s got to go, somebody’s got to defend this country. Somebody’s got to defend the freedom. This is the reason why I went." -- Chester Nez (Din� [Navajo]), World War II and Korean War veteran
47. YSERVE_220206_281.JPG: Honor dance welcoming home Pascal Cleatus Poolaw Sr. (right, holding the American flag) after his service in the Korean War. To his right are members of the Kiowa War Mothers. Carnegie, Oklahoma, ca. 1952. Poolaw (Kiowa, 1922–1967) remains the most decorated American Indian soldier in history, having earned forty-two medals and citations during three wars: World War II, Korea, and Vietnam.
48. YSERVE_220206_284.JPG: Ben Nighthorse Campbell (Northern Cheyenne, b. 1933) shares a laugh with a young South Korean man during his service in the United States Air Force in the Korean War.
49. YSERVE_220206_290.JPG: Master Sergeant Woodrow Wilson Keeble, ca. 1955. A veteran of World War II, Keeble (Dakota Sioux, 1917–1982) volunteered for duty in Korea because, as he put it, “Somebody has to teach these kids how to fight.” Known in his community as a gentle soul, Keeble was also a ferocious front-line warrior who risked his life to save his fellow soldiers during one of the last major U.S. offensives of the Korean War. For his actions, Keeble was decorated with the Distinguished Service Cross, the Purple Heart, and the Bronze Star. In 2008, twenty-six years after his death, Keeble was awarded the Medal of Honor “for conspicuous gallantry . . . at the risk of his life, above and beyond the call of duty.”
50. YSERVE_220206_296.JPG: John Emhoolah, ca. 1950 John Emhoolah (Kiowa/Arapaho, b. 1929) was one of five brothers who served in the military. Upon his return from the Korean War, he became active in the fight for Native nations’ treaty rights.
51. YSERVE_220206_300.JPG: Vietnam Approximately 42,000 American Indians—one of four eligible Native people compared to about one of twelve non-Natives—served in the armed forces during the war in Vietnam (1964–1975). Many were drafted, but a large number volunteered, often citing family and tribal traditions of service as a reason. But Vietnam was a different war. Far from fighting conventional battles, U.S. forces searched endlessly, and often unsuccessfully, for an elusive enemy. Mines, booby traps, and ambushes took a terrible toll. Like many other Vietnam veterans, American Indians were often deeply traumatized by what they experienced. Upon returning home, many found solace and healing in tribal welcome, honor, and healing ceremonies. Others found hope and purpose in advocating for treaty rights and tribal self-determination. "We went into their country and killed them and took land that wasn’t ours. Just like the whites did to us . . . We shouldn’t have done that. Browns against browns. That screwed me up, you know." -- Native American Vietnam veteran
52. YSERVE_220206_307.JPG: Ernie Wensaut (Forest County Potawatomi, b. ca. 1945) checking his gear before a patrol mission near the Cambodian border in the highlands of Vietnam in March 1967. A member of Company C, 2nd Battalion, 10th Infantry, 1st Division (also known as the “Big Red One”), Wensaut was an M-60 machine gunner whose weapon, nicknamed “The Pig,” fired 500 to 600 rounds per minute.
53. YSERVE_220206_315.JPG: Harvey Pratt (Cheyenne and Arapaho, b. 1941) holds a Naga knife—a Southeast Asian knife used for cutting through vegetation—during the camouflage and evasion portion of ambush training for his service in Vietnam, 1963.
54. YSERVE_220206_320.JPG: T. C. Cannon (Caddo/Kiowa, 1946–1978), On Drinkin’ Beer in Vietnam, 1971. Lithograph on paper, 48 � 76 cm. Collection of Museum of Contemporary Native Art. This print depicts the artist and his friend from home, Kirby Feathers (Ponca), at a Vietnamese bar. Though stationed just miles apart, they only met up once while in Vietnam. Cannon was conflicted by his service; a symbol of that conflict—a mushroom cloud—appears in the background. Cannon was a member of the Kiowa Ton-Kon-Gah, or Black Leggings Warrior Society.
55. YSERVE_220206_326.JPG: Donna Loring, 1966. Loring (Penobscot, b. 1948) served in 1967 and 1968 as a communications specialist at Long Binh Post in Vietnam, where she processed casualty reports from throughout Southeast Asia. She was the first female police academy graduate to become a police chief in Maine and served as the Penobscots’ police chief from 1984 to 1990. In 1999, Maine governor Angus King commissioned her to the rank of colonel and appointed her his advisor on women veterans’ affairs.
56. YSERVE_220206_341.JPG: Conflicts in the Middle East Since the Gulf War (1990–1991), the United States has been engaged in an ongoing series of conflicts, primarily in Afghanistan and Iraq. American Indian men and women have served bravely in these and other missions in distant places such as Fallujah, Kandahar, Mosul, Raqqa, and Tora Bora. The cost of war has been high. Some 30 American Indians and Alaska Natives were killed and 188 wounded in Operation Enduring Freedom (Afghanistan, 2001–2014). In Operation Iraqi Freedom (2003–2010), 43 American Indians died while 344 were wounded. Despite the danger, Native Americans continue to serve in the armed forces. As of 2017, more than 24,000 of the 1.2 million active-duty servicemen and women are American Indian and Alaska Native.
57. YSERVE_220206_344.JPG: Sergeants Sam Stitt (Choctaw) and Chuck Boers (Lipan Apache), who discovered a shared Native heritage while serving in the army, pose next to their artwork in An Najaf, Iraq, in 2004.
58. YSERVE_220206_348.JPG: Lori Piestewa (Hopi, 1979-2003), a specialist in the Quartermaster Corps of the 507th Maintenance Company of the United States Army, February 18, 2003. Piestawa was killed during the invasion of Iraq in Operation Enduring Freedom, becoming the first known American Indian woman service member killed in combat in an American war.
59. YSERVE_220206_352.JPG: Soldiers from the United States Army’s 120th Engineer Combat Battalion, posing with the Cherokee Nation flag. The photo was taken during the powwow events held at Al Taqaddum Air Base, Iraq, September 17 and 18, 2004. During the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, the 120th Engineer Combat Battalion had the highest proportion of American Indians—20 percent—of any military unit in the combat zone. Part of the Oklahoma National Guard and successor to the famous Thunderbirds of World War II, the 120th was ordered into service in 2003. The unit was awarded a meritorious commendation for its participation in the War on Terror and for its role in fighting in Afghanistan.
60. YSERVE_220206_357.JPG: Drum, titled Desert Thunder, and drumsticks used in a two-day powwow at Al Taqaddum Air Base near Fallujah, Iraq, 2004. Made by 120th Engineer Combat Battalion. Metal, wood, hide, twine, nylon cord, adhesive tape, plastic, nails; 45 � 61 � 62 cm. (drum); length 49, 49, and 60 cm. (drumsticks). Gift of Sergeant Debra K. Mooney and 120th Engineer Combat Battalion. NMAI 26/5148
61. YSERVE_220206_367.JPG: War and Peace "If it wasn’t for those support people, a lot of us wouldn’t be here. So whether they were stateside or whether they were in a country that was not combat, we need to recognize those people also. They were just as important to us and our well-being and our service time as anybody else." -- Native American Vietnam veteran, National Native American Veterans Memorial consultation, Tulsa, Oklahoma, 2016 Native Americans have contributed to the United States Armed Forces both on and off the battlefield. Whether deployed to combat zones, engaged in peacekeeping operations, or assigned to humanitarian relief missions, Native American servicemen and women have embraced the changing contours of military service. By adapting to the ever-changing needs of the armed forces, they have demonstrated an enduring commitment to military service in all its forms and helped to broaden the criteria that traditionally define tribal warriors.
62. YSERVE_220206_374.JPG: Manuel “Chief” Hernandez (Barona Band of Mission Indians), December 2001. Shortly after 9/11, West Point graduate Hernandez deployed to Karshi-Khanabad, Uzbekistan, in support of Operation Enduring Freedom. This remote location was the staging point for several early military operations into Afghanistan.
63. YSERVE_220206_381.JPG: Master Chief Melvin Kealoha Bell (Native Hawaiian, 1920–2018), performing a final inspection at his retirement ceremony following twenty years of active service (1938–1958), Boston, Massachusetts, December 31, 1958. Born in Hilo, Hawai‘i, Bell learned his mechanical and electrical skills from his father. Later, as radioman for the Coast Guard, Petty Officer Bell learned communications and naval intelligence work while serving at Diamond Head Lighthouse on O‘ahu. When the attack on Pearl Harbor occurred on December 7, 1941, Bell was on duty. He was the first to radio warnings to commercial vessels and military installations. After the attack, Bell focused on the war effort as a specialist in naval communications intelligence with the Fleet Radio Unit Pacific (FRUPAC). This work was critical to breaking Japanese codes and securing victories in the Pacific theater. While in the Coast Guard, Bell became the first Pacific Islander to become a chief petty officer, and was the first non-white coastguardsman to achieve the rank of master chief. After twenty years of active duty, he continued another forty-five as a civilian Coast Guard employee, finally retiring at age eighty-four with sixty-five years of service, one of the longest military careers in U.S. history.
64. YSERVE_220206_393.JPG: The Native American Women Warriors leading the grand entry during a powwow in Pueblo, Colorado, June 14, 2014. From left: Sergeant First Class Mitchelene BigMan (Aps�alooke [Crow]/Hidatsa), Sergeant Lisa Marshall (Cheyenne River Sioux), Specialist Krissy Quinones (Aps�alooke), and Captain Calley Cloud (Aps�alooke), with Tia Cyrus (Aps�alooke) behind them. The organization, founded by Mitchelene BigMan in 2012, raises awareness about Native American women veterans and provides resources for support services in health, employment, and education.
65. YSERVE_220206_406.JPG: National Native American Veterans Memorial The United States Congress charged the National Museum of the American Indian with creating a memorial on its grounds to give all Americans the opportunity “to learn of the proud and courageous tradition of service of Native Americans.” The dedication of the National Native American Veterans Memorial brings long overdue recognition to the American Indians, Alaska Natives, and Native Hawaiians who have served their country selflessly and with honor. The memorial is a welcoming space for gathering, reflection, healing, and remembrance, and a lasting tribute to those who have given so much of themselves for their country. "There’s a place to sit and do whatever someone has to do for medicine, to use the water, use the earth, use the wind. I hope it will be a place for war mothers. As non-Native visitors see Native veterans and their families blessing the water and tying prayer cloths, letting the wind carry their prayers, the memorial will be a place of learning and understanding as well. I hope it will be a place where veterans come and tell a war story, and where people come and say, ‘We’re so proud of you.’ " -- Harvey Pratt (Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes of Oklahoma)
66. YSERVE_220206_411.JPG: The National Native American Veterans Memorial was developed in consultation with tribal communities throughout the United States and designed by artist Harvey Pratt, a Marine Corps Vietnam veteran, and Butzer Architects and Urbanism.
67. YSERVE_220206_420.JPG: Harvey Pratt, 2019. Pratt is a member of the Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes of Oklahoma and a Southern Cheyenne peace chief, in addition to being a Marine Corps Vietnam veteran and artist. After enlisting, Pratt was assigned to the Marine Corps Military Police in Okinawa, where he volunteered for special duty. He spent an additional two months in training, then seven months in Vietnam guarding the air base at Da Nang and helping to support helicopter squadrons in recovering pilots who had been shot down. In 1965, when his enlistment ended, Pratt joined the Midwest City, Oklahoma, Police Department. The first drawing of a suspect he made from a witness description led to an arrest and conviction in a homicide. In 1972, he joined the Oklahoma State Bureau of Investigation (OSBI) and retired as an assistant director in 1992, but he continued to serve until 2017 as a forensic artist.
68. YSERVE_220206_430.JPG: Marine Corps veteran Debra Wilson (Oglala Lakota) addresses a panel from the NMAI about her vision for the National Native American Veterans Memorial during a public forum at the Hard Rock Hotel and Casino Tulsa in Catoosa, Oklahoma, 2016.
69. YSERVE_220206_437.JPG: Eric Birdinground (Aps�alooke [Crow]) speaks at the National Native American Veterans Memorial consultation at Crow Agency, Montana, July 29, 2016.
70. YSERVE_221124_01.JPG: The Smithsonian-wide exhibition page ( https://www.si.edu/exhibitions/why-we-serve-native-americans-united-states-armed-forces:event-exhib-6573 ) said the exhibit had been updated on September 10, 2022 but I couldn't see any changes in it.
71. YSERVE_221124_06.JPG: "I found out I am not only fighting for the little bitty piece of land I talk about, [or] my immediate family. I found out I was fighting for all the Indian people, all the people of the United States." -- Samuel Tso (Navajo), United States Marine Corps Why We Serve honors the generations of Native Americans who have served in the armed forces of the United States—often in extraordinary numbers—since the American Revolution. For some, the Indigenous commitment to the U.S. military doesn’t make sense. Why would Indians serve a country that overran their homelands, suppressed their cultures, and confined them to reservations? Native people have served for the same reasons as anyone else: to demonstrate patriotism or pursue employment, education, or adventure. Many were drafted. Yet tribal warrior traditions, treaty commitments with the United States, and responsibility for defending Native homelands have also inspired the enduring legacy of Indigenous military service. Why We Serve commemorates the National Native American Veterans Memorial, dedicated at the National Museum of the American Indian in Washington, DC.
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2022 photos: This year included major setbacks -- including Putin's invasion of Ukraine and the Supreme Court imposing the evangelical version of sharia law -- but also some steps forward like the results of the midterms. This website had its 20th anniversary in August, 2022. Equipment this year: I continued to use my Fuji XS-1 cameras but, depending on the event, I also used a Nikon D7000. Trips this year: (February) a visit to see Dad and Dixie in Asheville, NC with some other members of my family, (July) a trip out west for the return of San Diego Comic-Con, and (October) a long weekend in New York to cover New York Comic-Con. Number of photos taken this year: about 386,000, up 2020 and 2021 levels but still way below pre-pandemic levels.
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