BGuthrie Photos: DC -- Natl Museum of American History -- Exhibit: Many Voices, One Nation

DC -- Natl Museum of American History -- Exhibit: Many Voices, One Nation:

Bruce Guthrie Photos Home Page: [Click here] to go to Bruce Guthrie Photos home page.

Recognize anyone? If you recognize specific folks (or other stuff) and I haven't labeled them, please identify them for the world. Click the little pencil icon

underneath the file name (just above the picture). Spammers need not apply.

Slide Show: Want to see the pictures as a slide show? [Slideshow]

Copyrights: All pictures were taken by amateur photographer Bruce Guthrie (me!) who retains copyright on them. Free for non-commercial use with attribution. See the [Creative Commons] definition of what this means. "Photos (c) Bruce Guthrie" is fine for attribution. (Commercial use folks including AI scrapers can of course contact me.) Feel free to use in publications and pages with attribution but you don't have permission to sell the photos themselves. A free copy of any printed publication using any photographs is requested. Descriptive text, if any, is from a mixture of sources, quite frequently from signs at the location or from official web sites; copyrights, if any, are retained by their original owners.

Help? The Medium (Email) links are for screen viewing and emailing. You'll want bigger sizes for printing. [Click here for additional help]

Share: Facebook Twitter Digg
[1] SIAVO1_210524_004.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[2] SIAVO1_210524_007.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[3] SIAVO1_210524_010.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[4] SIAVO1_210524_014.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[5] SIAVO1_210524_023.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[6] SIAVO1_210524_028.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[7] SIAVO1_210524_038.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[8] SIAVO1_210524_041.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[9] SIAVO1_210524_044.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[10] SIAVO1_210524_047.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[11] SIAVO1_210524_056.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[12] SIAVO1_210524_058.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[13] SIAVO1_210524_066.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[14] SIAVO1_210524_069.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[15] SIAVO1_210524_073.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[16] SIAVO1_210524_076.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[17] SIAVO1_210524_080.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[18] SIAVO1_210524_084.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[19] SIAVO1_210524_086.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[20] SIAVO1_210524_090.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[21] SIAVO1_210524_093.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[22] SIAVO1_210524_101.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[23] SIAVO1_210524_103.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[24] SIAVO1_210524_106.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[25] SIAVO1_210524_109.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[26] SIAVO1_210524_114.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[27] SIAVO1_210524_119.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[28] SIAVO1_210524_121.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[29] SIAVO1_210524_123.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[30] SIAVO1_210524_126.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[31] SIAVO1_210524_132.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[32] SIAVO1_210524_134.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[33] SIAVO1_210524_138.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[34] SIAVO1_210524_140.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[35] SIAVO1_210524_143.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[36] SIAVO1_210524_147.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[37] SIAVO1_210524_149.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[38] SIAVO1_210524_155.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[39] SIAVO1_210524_158.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[40] SIAVO1_210524_161.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[41] SIAVO1_210524_169.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[42] SIAVO1_210524_175.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[43] SIAVO1_210524_180.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[44] SIAVO1_210524_185.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[45] SIAVO1_210524_188.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[46] SIAVO1_210524_191.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[47] SIAVO1_210524_198.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[48] SIAVO1_210524_204.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[49] SIAVO1_210524_208.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[50] SIAVO1_210524_213.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[51] SIAVO1_210524_217.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[52] SIAVO1_210524_224.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[53] SIAVO1_210524_230.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[54] SIAVO1_210524_233.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[55] SIAVO1_210524_235.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[56] SIAVO1_210524_237.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[57] SIAVO1_210524_245.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[58] SIAVO1_210524_251.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[59] SIAVO1_210524_258.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[60] SIAVO1_210524_261.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[61] SIAVO1_210524_264.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[62] SIAVO1_210524_267.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[63] SIAVO1_210524_273.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[64] SIAVO1_210524_276.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[65] SIAVO1_210524_277.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[66] SIAVO1_210524_282.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[67] SIAVO1_210524_285.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[68] SIAVO1_210524_288.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[69] SIAVO1_210524_291.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[70] SIAVO1_210524_298.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[71] SIAVO1_210524_301.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[72] SIAVO1_210524_303.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[73] SIAVO1_210524_306.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[74] SIAVO1_210524_309.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[75] SIAVO1_210524_314.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[76] SIAVO1_210524_317.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[77] SIAVO1_210524_319.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[78] SIAVO1_210524_323.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[79] SIAVO1_210524_326.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[80] SIAVO1_210524_329.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[81] SIAVO1_210524_332.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[82] SIAVO1_210524_338.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[83] SIAVO1_210524_342.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[84] SIAVO1_210524_343.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[85] SIAVO1_210524_347.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[86] SIAVO1_210524_352.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[87] SIAVO1_210524_357.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[88] SIAVO1_210524_361.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[89] SIAVO1_210524_373.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[90] SIAVO1_210524_375.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[91] SIAVO1_210524_379.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[92] SIAVO1_210524_380.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[93] SIAVO1_210524_387.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[94] SIAVO1_210524_390.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[95] SIAVO1_210524_393.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[96] SIAVO1_210524_399.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[97] SIAVO1_210524_404.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[98] SIAVO1_210524_408.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[99] SIAVO1_210524_411.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[100] SIAVO1_210524_418.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[101] SIAVO1_210524_420.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[102] SIAVO1_210524_426.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[103] SIAVO1_210524_432.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[104] SIAVO1_210524_437.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[105] SIAVO1_210524_442.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[106] SIAVO1_210524_446.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[107] SIAVO1_210524_452.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[108] SIAVO1_210524_455.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[109] SIAVO1_210524_462.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[110] SIAVO1_210524_467.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[111] SIAVO1_210524_471.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[112] SIAVO1_210524_473.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[113] SIAVO1_210524_476.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[114] SIAVO1_210524_479.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[115] SIAVO1_210524_483.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[116] SIAVO1_210524_486.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[117] SIAVO1_210524_488.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[118] SIAVO1_210524_497.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[119] SIAVO1_210524_500.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[120] SIAVO1_210524_505.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[121] SIAVO1_210524_509.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[122] SIAVO1_210524_511.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[123] SIAVO1_210524_514.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[124] SIAVO1_210524_517.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[125] SIAVO1_210524_528.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[126] SIAVO1_210524_533.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[127] SIAVO1_210524_538.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[128] SIAVO1_210524_541.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[129] SIAVO1_210524_546.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[130] SIAVO1_210524_550.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[131] SIAVO1_210524_553.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[132] SIAVO1_210524_557.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[133] SIAVO1_210524_563.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[134] SIAVO1_210524_572.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[135] SIAVO1_210524_575.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[136] SIAVO1_210524_578.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[137] SIAVO1_210524_583.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[138] SIAVO1_210524_589.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[139] SIAVO1_210524_593.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[140] SIAVO1_210524_605.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[141] SIAVO1_210524_614.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[142] SIAVO1_210524_622.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[143] SIAVO1_210524_626.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[144] SIAVO1_210524_629.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[145] SIAVO1_210524_634.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[146] SIAVO1_210524_636.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[147] SIAVO1_210524_638.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[148] SIAVO1_210524_646.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[149] SIAVO1_210524_648.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[150] SIAVO1_210524_655.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[151] SIAVO1_210524_661.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[152] SIAVO1_210524_664.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[153] SIAVO1_210524_666.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[154] SIAVO1_210524_668.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[155] SIAVO1_210524_670.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[156] SIAVO1_210524_673.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[157] SIAVO1_210524_676.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[158] SIAVO1_210524_682.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[159] SIAVO1_210524_686.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[160] SIAVO1_210524_691.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[161] SIAVO1_210524_696.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[162] SIAVO1_210524_698.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[163] SIAVO1_210524_701.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[164] SIAVO1_210524_704.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[165] SIAVO1_210524_706.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[166] SIAVO1_210524_711.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[167] SIAVO1_210524_713.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[168] SIAVO1_210524_716.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[169] SIAVO1_210524_720.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[170] SIAVO1_210524_723.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[171] SIAVO1_210524_730.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[172] SIAVO1_210524_733.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[173] SIAVO1_210524_739.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[174] SIAVO1_210524_742.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[175] SIAVO1_210524_748.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[176] SIAVO1_210524_754.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[177] SIAVO1_210524_761.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[178] SIAVO1_210524_774.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[179] SIAVO1_210524_776.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[180] SIAVO1_210524_779.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[181] SIAVO1_210524_782.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[182] SIAVO1_210524_784.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[183] SIAVO1_210524_787.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[184] SIAVO1_210524_792.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[185] SIAVO1_210524_798.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[186] SIAVO1_210524_804.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[187] SIAVO1_210524_808.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[188] SIAVO1_210524_810.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[189] SIAVO1_210524_812.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[190] SIAVO2_210524_002.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[191] SIAVO2_210524_005.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[192] SIAVO2_210524_010.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[193] SIAVO2_210524_012.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[194] SIAVO2_210524_016.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[195] SIAVO2_210524_018.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[196] SIAVO2_210524_023.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[197] SIAVO2_210524_026.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[198] SIAVO2_210524_029.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[199] SIAVO2_210524_033.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[200] SIAVO2_210524_038.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[201] SIAVO2_210524_040.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[202] SIAVO2_210524_042.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[203] SIAVO2_210524_045.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[204] SIAVO2_210524_048.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[205] SIAVO2_210524_051.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[206] SIAVO2_210524_055.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[207] SIAVO2_210524_059.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[208] SIAVO2_210524_063.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[209] SIAVO2_210524_065.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[210] SIAVO2_210524_069.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[211] SIAVO2_210524_080.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[212] SIAVO2_210524_088.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[213] SIAVO2_210524_090.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[214] SIAVO2_210524_093.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[215] SIAVO2_210524_096.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[216] SIAVO2_210524_100.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[217] SIAVO2_210524_101.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[218] SIAVO2_210524_105.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[219] SIAVO2_210524_107.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[220] SIAVO2_210524_112.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[221] SIAVO2_210524_114.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[222] SIAVO2_210524_117.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[223] SIAVO2_210524_121.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[224] SIAVO2_210524_122.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[225] SIAVO2_210524_125.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[226] SIAVO2_210524_137.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[227] SIAVO2_210524_142.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[228] SIAVO2_210524_149.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[229] SIAVO2_210524_151.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[230] SIAVO2_210524_154.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[231] SIAVO2_210524_157.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[232] SIAVO2_210524_161.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[233] SIAVO2_210524_163.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[234] SIAVO2_210524_166.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[235] SIAVO2_210524_169.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[236] SIAVO2_210524_172.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[237] SIAVO2_210524_178.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[238] SIAVO2_210524_181.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[239] SIAVO2_210524_184.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[240] SIAVO2_210524_187.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[241] SIAVO2_210524_190.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[242] SIAVO2_210524_192.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[243] SIAVO2_210524_196.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[244] SIAVO2_210524_199.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[245] SIAVO2_210524_207.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[246] SIAVO2_210524_209.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[247] SIAVO2_210524_213.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[248] SIAVO2_210524_216.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[249] SIAVO2_210524_217.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[250] SIAVO2_210524_221.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[251] SIAVO2_210524_223.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[252] SIAVO2_210524_227.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[253] SIAVO2_210524_229.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[254] SIAVO2_210524_234.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[255] SIAVO2_210524_237.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[256] SIAVO2_210524_239.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[257] SIAVO2_210524_241.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[258] SIAVO2_210524_244.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[259] SIAVO2_210524_249.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[260] SIAVO2_210524_257.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[261] SIAVO2_210524_259.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[262] SIAVO2_210524_261.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[263] SIAVO2_210524_264.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[264] SIAVO2_210524_267.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[265] SIAVO2_210524_270.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[266] SIAVO2_210524_279.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[267] SIAVO2_210524_282.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[268] SIAVO2_210524_287.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[269] SIAVO2_210524_291.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[270] SIAVO2_210524_295.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[271] SIAVO2_210524_299.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[272] SIAVO2_210524_302.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[273] SIAVO2_210524_304.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[274] SIAVO2_210524_310.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[275] SIAVO2_210524_315.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[276] SIAVO2_210524_320.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[277] SIAVO2_210524_323.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)

Specific picture descriptions: Photos above with "i" icons next to the bracketed sequence numbers (e.g. "[1] ") are described as follows:
1. SIAVO1_210524_004.JPG: Many Voices, ONE NATION The people of North America came from many cultures and spoke different languages long before the founding of the United States, even before European contact. In creating the new nation, early leaders envisioned a country that promised opportunity and freedom -- but only for some. As the population grew, the people who lived in the United States found ways to negotiate, or work out, what it meant to be American. That negotiation continues. This exhibition explores how the many voices of people in America have shaped our nation.
2. SIAVO1_210524_007.JPG: How did we become US?
3. SIAVO1_210524_010.JPG: Unsettling the Continent, 1492–1776 It was an age of empires. The great European powers competed for wealth, territory, and global influence. That competition brought hundreds of thousands of Europeans and Africans to the North American continent, where Native peoples had lived for millennia. What happened next was a profound unsettling of long-established societies. The continent's population actually declined in this period, as Old World diseases swept through Native populations that lacked immunity. Beyond that profound tragedy there would be new conflicts, new forms of freedom, new forms of slavery, and new ways of living together. Our world today grows out of that unsettling history.
4. SIAVO1_210524_014.JPG: Tsimshian Crest Hat, Queen Charlotte Islands Native peoples had their own histories on the continent. This hat, made in the Pacific Northwest, depicts a water spirit in the form of many eagles. It embodies the history of Lutugts'amti, a founder of the eagle clan of the Tsimshian nation.
5. SIAVO1_210524_023.JPG: Helmet Iron helmets such as this one developed during centuries of warfare among competing European monarchs. Service to those monarchs, Christian religious fervor, and the quest for personal wealth lay behind early European efforts at conquest in the Americas.
6. SIAVO1_210524_028.JPG: African Cowrie Shell Necklace West African cultures prized cowrie shells from the Indian Ocean as items of status and value. They became an accepted form of currency in the African slave trade. An estimated 344,000 people would be captured and transported directly to mainland North America in that trade by 1776. Cowry Shell Necklace
7. SIAVO1_210524_038.JPG: Spanish New Mexico Spanish conquerors moved north of the Rio Grande in 1598 hoping to find gold and silver. Instead they found modest towns where Native peoples lived in adobe houses and practiced irrigation agriculture. Spain decided to support a colony at Santa Fe to convert Indians to Catholicism and to keep other European powers out of the region. Tewa, Zuni, Hopi, and other groups banded together to develop a new identity as "Pueblo peoples." Although many adopted Spanish as a second language, they came together to resist Spanish demands for labor and to defend their traditional religious practices.
8. SIAVO1_210524_044.JPG: Diego de Vargas Following the Pueblo revolt, Diego de Vargas led a military return to Santa Fe in 1691 and became governor the next year. The Spanish return was part reconquest and part negotiated agreement. The Spanish were willing to ease their forced labor system and accept some Pueblo religious practices, which allowed for coexistence and mutual defense against other Native peoples.
9. SIAVO1_210524_047.JPG: Pecos mission church corbel, after 1692 Pecos Mission Church This architectural bracket, or corbel, adorned the mission church at Pecos, New Mexico, established by Spanish Franciscans to convert Pueblo peoples in 1621. The church was rebuilt after the Pueblo Revolt of 1680.
10. SIAVO1_210524_056.JPG: Cross, New Mexico, 1850–1900 Hybrid Beliefs Like many other Native groups, Pueblo peoples resisted efforts to suppress their familiar spiritual beliefs and practices. Yet many Native Americans did find meaning in new Christian teachings. Across the continent, people sometimes joined new and old religious elements to create hybrid beliefs.
11. SIAVO1_210524_058.JPG: Spur, Mexico, 1800s Horses and riding equipment such as spurs, saddles, and stirrups played a fundamental role in Spanish conquest, exploration, and settlement. In the 1500s the Spanish brought cattle, sheep, and horses into northern Mexico. Spanish settlers and Native peoples developed ranching and grazing economies through much of the Southwest.
12. SIAVO1_210524_066.JPG: Painted elk hide, 1693–1710 Without access to canvases, Spanish priests and Pueblo artisans adapted traditions of religious painting by using animal hides. This hide depicts St. Anthony of Padua with baby Jesus, and decorated a mission wall in New Mexico.
13. SIAVO1_210524_069.JPG: Statue of Po'pay Po'pay urged Pueblo people to cast off the Spanish in order to work, pray, marry, and live according to their earlier traditions. In 2005 New Mexico donated this statue of Po'pay to the National Statuary Hall in the U.S. Capitol to honor Pueblo resistance and endurance.
14. SIAVO1_210524_073.JPG: New France French traders established settlements at Qu�bec and Montreal along the St. Lawrence River in the early 1600s. French Jesuits also traveled to the colony to bring Catholicism to Native peoples. But New France focused primarily on the fur trade. Relatively few immigrants left France to settle in the New World, and some who did were Protestant Huguenots, welcome in British colonies but not in Catholic New France. Despite limited immigration of Europeans, New France laid claim to broad swaths of the continent, based on extensive military and economic alliances with Native peoples.
15. SIAVO1_210524_076.JPG: Shoulder bag made by the Metis people, 1800s New Identities Some Native people adopted the Christian beliefs taught by Jesuits and learned other French practices. For their part, many Frenchmen hunted alongside Algonquian peoples in the upper country. Such woodsmen often married Algonquian women. They and their children (called M�tis) often became effective traders, translators, and diplomats.
16. SIAVO1_210524_080.JPG: Pipe tomahawk collected from Chippewa or Ojibwa people, made by Europeans for trade or diplomacy, 1780-1800 Fur Trade By 1700 France and England competed with each other to profit from the fur trade and win Native allies. Native peoples competed with one another to serve as intermediaries between rival powers. Gifts helped cement key agreements in these new systems of negotiation and alliance.
17. SIAVO1_210524_084.JPG: Silver used in trade, New France
18. SIAVO1_210524_090.JPG: Man's Moccasins, Northern Michigan, around 1790 Marketing Moccasins in North America Just as Native Americans adopted European goods, Europeans came to appreciate moccasins. Moccasins could withstand local conditions and be remade regularly using efficient design and readily available materials. European traders, farmers, and priests quickly adopted them. By the mid-1700s European settlers in Detroit were manufacturing them for sale in both French and English towns and cities to the east.
19. SIAVO1_210524_093.JPG: Man's Moccasins, Northern Michigan, around 1790 These two pairs of moccasins came from the Michilimackinac trading post in today's far northern Michigan. The unadorned pair may have been made for trade. The decorated pair, featuring porcupine quills, deer hair, and silk ribbons, may have been made for personal use or as a gift.
20. SIAVO1_210524_103.JPG: Fox man, by French artist, around 1720 French woodsman, or coureur de bois, wearing snowshoes A Middle Ground The upper country of the Great Lakes and beyond was neither fully French nor fully Algonquian. Neither group commanded enough power to make the other abide by its wishes. The area became a site of constant negotiation and compromise over such issues as prices, fairness in exchange, and the obligations of military alliance.
21. SIAVO1_210524_109.JPG: Dutch New Amsterdam Lenape peoples farmed, fished, and hunted on Mannahatta (a "hilly island") and traded with other peoples along the river. In 1624 the Dutch West India Company arrived to join that trade, seeking animal furs for the European market. The company brought diverse groups of able-bodied Europeans to build their outpost. Germans, English, and Walloons (French speakers from today's Belgium) populated the colony along with Dutch nationals. In the 1630s one observer heard up to eighteen European and Native American languages in the streets of New Amsterdam. Africans also lived there, both enslaved and free. Sephardic Jews arrived from Brazil in 1654.
22. SIAVO1_210524_114.JPG: Reproduction of plan created by Jacques Cortelyou Plan of New Amsterdam, 1660 This first accurate plan of the city, drawn in 1660, shows a defensive wall along the northern edge of the city (Wall Street today) and a broad city street (or Broadway) running north.
23. SIAVO1_210524_119.JPG: Land grant, 1661
24. SIAVO1_210524_121.JPG: Peter Stuyvesant Peter Stuyvesant, governor of New Amsterdam, fostered cooperation and an enterprising spirit among the varied people there. To accomplish this, he awarded land grants that gave recipients the rights to live, farm, and trade. This grant is for land in Midwout, part of today's Brooklyn.
25. SIAVO1_210524_123.JPG: Adopting New Ways
26. SIAVO1_210524_126.JPG: Wampum, drill, and shell necklace
27. SIAVO1_210524_132.JPG: Africans in New Amsterdam The Dutch West India Company brought enslaved people from its slave-trading posts in Africa to work on farms, build roads, and perform domestic labor. Urban life created a different sort of African American society than was emerging in the plantation colonies. Africans in New Amsterdam lived in their own households and established families. After years of work, some won partial freedom and land allotments from the company. Still, the company claimed the children of these people as slaves. To increase those children's chances of freedom, African parents and godparents had their children baptized in the Dutch Reformed Church.
28. SIAVO1_210524_138.JPG: British South Carolina In the late 1600s the British established a plantation system in South Carolina like the one in the West Indies, dedicated to production of a single cash crop for export. The colony's rice plantations offered substantial profits to a few but depended on the forced labor of many. Enslaved Indians were part of the early workforce, but the British soon turned to importing unfree African workers. By the early 1700s South Carolina had an African majority and a European minority. West Africans brought their own knowledge and beliefs and created a new language and culture in America.
29. SIAVO1_210524_140.JPG: New African American Cultures
30. SIAVO1_210524_143.JPG: Deed between Native nation and colonial government, 1675 British Immigration At first British authorities recognized the sovereignty of Native nations, as seen in written agreements that conveyed land. Local chiefs and leading women of the Cusabo tribe signed this conveyance in 1675. Later, British intrusions into interior lands and the practice of taking Indian slaves led to the Yamasee War of 1715–1717.
31. SIAVO1_210524_147.JPG: Rice Culture Much of the South Carolina low country was too swampy for traditional English agriculture. To find a staple crop that would make the colony a secure contributor to the British Empire, settlers needed to adapt to their new environment. In the 1690s the colony successfully adopted rice production. Rice cultivation was a multicultural invention. It combined West African rice-growing knowledge with British practices of agricultural experimentation. The labor of enslaved Africans guaranteed Carolina's economic success.
32. SIAVO1_210524_155.JPG: Reproduction of slave advertisement Reproduction of slave inventory Enslaved Laborers Enslaved people from rice-growing regions of West Africa were valued workers, as this advertisement reflected. Importation gave Carolina a black majority by 1710.
33. SIAVO1_210524_161.JPG: Portrait of Mrs. Charles Lowndes, by Jeremiah Theus, around 1758 Profits from rice culture, the slave trade, and commerce with Europe created a class of successful English, Scots, and French Huguenots, many transplanted from the West Indies. Pictured here is Mrs. Charles Lowndes, wife of a plantation owner in Colleton County, South Carolina.
34. SIAVO1_210524_169.JPG: Spoons Scots immigrant Alexander Petrie produced fine silver (such as these spoons, marked "AP") for prosperous customers in the mid-1700s. Like other Charleston craftsmen, Petrie hired both Europeans and Africans at his shop.
35. SIAVO1_210524_175.JPG: Reproduction fanner basket
36. SIAVO1_210524_180.JPG: Woman using mortar and pestle, 1915 Rice Processing Implements of rice production in the Carolinas included a mortar and pestle for milling to remove the husk from the grain and a fanner basket for winnowing the husks and chaff away. As in West African rice-growing regions, most processing was women's work.
37. SIAVO1_210524_188.JPG: British Pennsylvania In the 1680s English Quaker William Penn established Pennsylvania through purchases and treaties with Native Americans. Like other British colonies on the continent, Pennsylvania attracted immigrants from the many rural households pushed off the land in Britain. What made Pennsylvania different was Penn's extraordinary policy of religious toleration. He created a haven not only for Quakers but also for other dissenting groups persecuted in Europe. The "holy experiment" attracted immigrants from England, Germany, Ireland, France, and elsewhere. Pennsylvania became the most populous of the colonies.
38. SIAVO1_210524_191.JPG: Iron stove plate, 1748 Ethnic Diversity This stove plate from 1748 shows some of the distinctive German decorative elements that would persist in Pennsylvania. The inscription comes from Luther's version of Psalms 65:10, "God's well has water in plenty." The initials on it may identify maker and place of manufacture.
39. SIAVO1_210524_198.JPG: "A Map of Philadelphia and Parts Adjacent with a Perspective View of the State House," by N. Scull and G. Heap, 1752 Pennsylvania Statehouse Philadelphia's impressive public building housed the colonial legislature and courts. Quakers dominated the Pennsylvania government even after immigrant Germans and Scots-Irish outnumbered them in the 1750s. The Quakers lost power with the American Revolution, when the Pennsylvania statehouse would become known as Independence Hall.
40. SIAVO1_210524_204.JPG: Germans in Pennsylvania German immigrants founded Germantown near Philadelphia in 1683, but large-scale German immigration came in the next century, when wars and religious intolerance displaced many from Europe. Separatist sects found acceptance in the colony, including Moravians, Mennonites, and Amish. Germans became the largest non-English group in colonial Pennsylvania. They established German-language newspapers and schools and only gradually became engaged with political affairs of the colony. Philadelphian Benjamin Franklin expressed an ambivalent view of these immigrants. He admired their industry but worried that they introduced an "alien" element to the colony.
41. SIAVO1_210524_208.JPG: Firemark, 1753 Associating for Improvement This plaque marked a Philadelphia building as insured by the Contributionship, a fire insurance association founded in 1752. Its design expressed the principle behind that organization: a joining of hands for mutual aid. Influenced by Quaker conscience and Enlightenment ideals of civic improvement, Philadelphians became renowned for forming many educational, fraternal, public service, and craft organizations.
42. SIAVO1_210524_213.JPG: Cartoon by James Claypoole, 1764 Conflict Over the Backcountry Conflicts of interest led rural Scots-Irish to mount an armed march toward Philadelphia in 1764. Farming on contested lands, many resented Quaker refusal to raise a military against Native peoples. Here, Native Americans and Quakers ride on the backs of suffering Scots-Irish and German immigrants.
43. SIAVO1_210524_217.JPG: Quaker meeting, by unknown British artist, late 1700s Quakers Quakers, or the Society of Friends, adopted a plain life and style of dress, as seen in this Quaker woman's bonnet. Their commitment to individual conscience, pacifism, and opposition to hierarchy made them radicals of their day. They met with persecution in England and most British colonies. Massachusetts Puritans even hanged several Quakers for preaching around 1660.
44. SIAVO1_210524_224.JPG: Reproduction of an engraving, 1768 Religious Diversity Philadelphia's skyline, as seen from New Jersey, shows some of the varied religious institutions of the city. This engraving helps the viewer to find an Anglican church (1), a Presbyterian church (4), a Dutch Calvinist church (5), and a Quaker meeting house (6). Also in the city were Old Swedes' Lutheran and St. George's Methodist churches.
45. SIAVO1_210524_230.JPG: Woodcut illustration by Joseph Crukshank and Isaac Collins, 1770 Baptism in the Schuylkill This engraving shows an adult baptism in the Schuylkill River in Philadelphia. On the shore, a minister preaches to a group of believers. Baptists were one of the evangelical Protestant groups that flourished in the Great Awakening of the 1740s and after. Their unorthodox beliefs -- especially the banning of infant baptism -- made them unwelcome to religious establishments in New England and the South.
46. SIAVO1_210524_233.JPG: Establishing the United States
47. SIAVO1_210524_235.JPG: Establishing the United States Thirteen British colonies fought to establish an independent nation. After the Revolution, the former colonists worked to create a political system and a sense of national identity expressed through symbols and images on everyday objects. Goddess of Liberty Figure In a desire to unify the colonies, the first U.S. Congress chose the motto E Pluribus Unum -- Out of Many, One. It took generations for those ineligible for citizenship in the new nation -- including Native Americans, people of African descent, and women -- to negotiate their place as part of the "One."
48. SIAVO1_210524_237.JPG: Emblem of America pitcher, around 1800 For centuries Europeans used the figure of an Indian woman to symbolize North America. This British-made pitcher depicts America as a European American female figure with a U.S. flag, and George Washington, along with smaller images of Native Americans.
49. SIAVO1_210524_245.JPG: Great Seal of the United States, around 1782 The Great Seal of the United States The Great Seal helped establish the nation's sovereignty. In 1776 Pierre Du Simiti�re proposed a national seal that included an English rose, Irish harp, Scottish thistle, French fleur-de-lis, Dutch lion, and German eagle. Instead the Continental Congress chose an American eagle but kept Du Simiti�re's motto E Pluribus Unum -- Out of Many, One.
50. SIAVO1_210524_251.JPG: Census pitcher, around 1790 This pitcher illustrates the results of the first U.S. census in 1790 at the time of the Naturalization Act. Of 3.9 million people counted, about half were of English origin, one-fifth were of African descent, and most of the rest were from western and northern Europe. Most Native people were not counted.
51. SIAVO1_210524_261.JPG: Peopling the Expanding Nation, 1776–1900 The inhabitants of the new nation were diverse and they would become more so with westward expansion, importation of enslaved Africans, incorporation and conquest of land and peoples, and increasing migration and immigration. With few restrictions on U.S. immigration until the late 1800s, peoples from Europe, the Americas, and Asia arrived seeking land and economic opportunity. The Civil War tested the strength of the Union and resulted in a renewed commitment to the ideal of one nation. This section tells stories of people who came to the United States and those who were already here, illustrating the challenges they faced in negotiating their place in the expanding nation.
52. SIAVO1_210524_264.JPG: Uncle Sam figure, Early 1900s Introduced around the time of the War of 1812, Uncle Sam symbolized the Union during the Civil War. By the 1900s the image of Uncle Sam came to represent the presence of the U.S. government.
53. SIAVO1_210524_277.JPG: Columbia figure, 1860s With her liberty cap and patriotic shield, Columbia was one of many idealized feminine figures that personified the new nation.
54. SIAVO1_210524_285.JPG: Out of Many Many peoples populating the vast lands of the new nation often carried with them small remembrances and traditions of their past lives. Holding and creating these objects rekindled memories and allowed people to share their cultural heritage with others over time.
55. SIAVO1_210524_291.JPG: Face vessel, African American, 1850s
56. SIAVO1_210524_298.JPG: Eagle, around 1850
57. SIAVO1_210524_301.JPG: Drinking bowl, Norwegian, 1800s
58. SIAVO1_210524_303.JPG: Decorated egg, Ukrainian, around 1880
59. SIAVO1_210524_306.JPG: Icon, Russian, 1800s
60. SIAVO1_210524_314.JPG: Pushed and Pulled: European Immigration Between 1840 and 1860, 4.5 million Europeans arrived in the United States, most from Germany, Ireland, and Scandinavia. Pushed from their homelands by political, agricultural, and industrial upheaval, they were drawn by demands for labor, the promise of land, and democratic ideals. Many settled along the East Coast; others came to the Midwest, already home to Native peoples. Newcomers negotiated what it meant to be American, even as they sought to maintain traditions from their homelands. Some Americans tolerated the growing diversity. Others reacted with hostility. Stories in this section take place in the Midwest, where immigrants encountered both Native peoples and others of European origin.
61. SIAVO1_210524_319.JPG: Indian Removal in the Midwest The U.S. government's 1830 Removal Act forcibly pushed Indians from their ancestral lands in the eastern United States to places west of the Mississippi. The act thereby made land in the Midwest available for European American settlement. Some Wisconsin and Michigan tribes resisted removal and continued to inhabit these lands. Those who remained learned to negotiate with European Americans, exchanging goods and agricultural knowledge. Some were able to retain Native belief systems; others became Christians.
62. SIAVO1_210524_323.JPG: Missionary Peter Dougherty, 1800s Interactions Between the Anishinaabe and European Americans The Anishinaabe Indians of Grand Traverse Bay (Michigan) purchased lands in order to remain in the region. With Indian consent, missionary Peter Dougherty established a school there to teach English and Christianize. The tribes partially accommodated European American ways while maintaining aspects of their culture and way of life.
63. SIAVO1_210524_326.JPG: Chief Agosa Native Americans occasionally wore western-made clothing while on diplomatic trips to Washington, D.C. Agosa, an Anishinaabe chief, traveled as a delegate to the nation's capital in 1836. Later, with the threat of removal, Agosa purchased land and relocated his people. The Reverend Peter Dougherty baptized Agosa in 1843.
64. SIAVO1_210524_329.JPG: A chief wearing both western and Native clothing
65. SIAVO1_210524_332.JPG: Hat band, Lenape, 1850–1900
66. SIAVO1_210524_338.JPG: Original and reproduction daguerreotypes of Native American delegates, by Thomas Easterly, around 1852 Indian Delegates These earliest known photographs of Native American delegates were taken during their journeys in the 1850s to Washington, D.C. The U.S. government often brought representatives of Indian tribes to the U.S. capital to exhibit the power of the nation and to ratify treaties.
67. SIAVO1_210524_343.JPG: Image of sample book page, 1834 Inequalities of Trade The U.S. government established Fort Gibson in 1824 as a buffer between white settlement and Indian territory. At the military post, civilian merchants sold cloth mostly to Indians. Because purchasers had few options, sellers often overcharged. This sample book lists costs of cloth types for Indians.
68. SIAVO1_210524_347.JPG: Ledger drawing by imprisoned Plains Indians, 1875–1878 Imprisoned for resisting relocation to reservations and engaging in the Red River Wars, some Plains Indians made drawings on pages of old account books representing their past lives as warriors and hunters.
69. SIAVO1_210524_352.JPG: Peter Glass with one of his inlaid wood tables, 1860s Bringing the Old World to the New The industrial revolution in Germany pushed many to migrate to the American Midwest, where they could continue to work as independent craftsmen or farmers. In Wisconsin, Peter Glass farmed and used his woodworking skills while embracing his adopted country. He became an American citizen, and made furniture that incorporated U.S. patriotic and historical motifs.
70. SIAVO1_210524_361.JPG: Inlaid wood table with patriotic themes, made by Peter Glass, 1868
71. SIAVO1_210524_390.JPG: Veneer panel, late 1800s
72. SIAVO1_210524_393.JPG: Germans in the Midwest More than five million Germans came to the United States in the 1800s, the largest foreign language group at the time. The majority moved to the Midwestern "German triangle," between Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin. Many were farmers in their homeland and pursued the same livelihood in the Midwest. Living in close proximity to other Germans encouraged these immigrants to maintain traditional customs and language. The anti-immigration sentiment so prevalent in some U.S. cities gained less ground in the rural areas of the Midwest.
73. SIAVO1_210524_399.JPG: Award won by Peter Glass for his woodworking, 1850–1868
74. SIAVO1_210524_404.JPG: Award won by Peter Glass for his woodworking, 1850–1868
75. SIAVO1_210524_408.JPG: Scroll-saw blade used by Peter Glass
76. SIAVO1_210524_411.JPG: Peter Glass and his second wife Catherine, 1868 The Peter Glass Family Peter Glass and his German-born first wife preserved aspects of their cultural identity by living near other Germans and keeping in contact with family in Europe. When his first wife died the Protestant Glass married an American-born daughter of German Catholic immigrants and became involved in her church.
77. SIAVO1_210524_418.JPG: Peter and Marian Glass and children, 1850s
78. SIAVO1_210524_420.JPG: Folk Sculpture, Polish, 1800s Many immigrants who came from East-Central Europe near the Carpathian Mountains, now Poland, settled in the Midwest. They brought their traditions with them, including the carving of religious wood sculptures meant to protect fields, roads, and houses.
79. SIAVO1_210524_426.JPG: Presentation Pitcher, 1853 Colonel Isaac O. Barnes presided as clerk of the U.S. Circuit Court in Massachusetts when many Irish immigrated to escape the potato famine in the mid-1800s. Recognizing his efforts to support their paths to citizenship, the foreign population of Boston presented him with this pitcher.
80. SIAVO1_210524_432.JPG: Handbook for immigrants, around 1850 Bilingual publications offered immigrants information about life in America and about states' resources, population, and settlement. Some guides embellished accounts of life on the prairie; newcomers often found their destination vastly different from what they expected.
81. SIAVO1_210524_437.JPG: Apron, Swedish, 1800s Swedish emigration began in the 1840s, with large numbers arriving in the late 1860s to escape famine. Many established new lives in the Midwest and continued to wear traditional dress, including aprons. The aprons' length, color, and design signified the particular area of Sweden they came from and their specific use.
82. SIAVO1_210524_442.JPG: Land and Opportunity in the Midwest Like Peter Glass, many immigrants relocated to the Midwest, lured by land and the opportunity to establish new lives. The Homestead Act not only encouraged migration by Americans but immigrants from Europe as well. The U.S. government provided 160 acres of land often taken from Native peoples to immigrants who declared intent to become citizens and willingness to farm on the land for five years. Emigration societies operating in Europe and the eastern United States promoted migration and the benefits of citizenship.
83. SIAVO1_210524_446.JPG: Boxing banner for John L. Sullivan, 1882 The 1845–1852 potato blight caused famine in Ireland, leading nearly a million to emigrate. Many Irishmen found work in Midwest lumber camps; Irish women often worked as domestic help. Sometimes perceived as unhealthy and criticized for their Catholic faith, they found their hero in Irish American John L. Sullivan, acclaimed U.S. boxing champion.
84. SIAVO1_210524_452.JPG: Reproduction of English and German card, Wisconsin Central Railroad Land Department, around 1880 Railroads promoted the sale of Midwest lands to German immigrants with German-language announcements. To encourage the development of cross-country railways, the U.S. government gave private railroad companies large tracts of land along their western routes, which they then sold to pay for rail construction.
85. SIAVO1_210524_476.JPG: Western Migration to the Mississippi Valley Growing numbers of people migrated to the Mississippi River Valley after the purchase of the Louisiana Territory in 1803. Some went in search of land and work. Others relocated for social, religious, and personal freedoms. Enslaved Africans were brought by force to labor in Southern cotton plantations. Westward migration affected the balance between slave and free states. Political disputes over this new westward expansion of slavery threatened the unity of the nation and resulted in the Civil War. Stories displayed here take place along the Mississippi River, which linked peoples as diverse as freed slave Frank McWorter, the religious and utopian communities of western Illinois, and the people who were enslaved in Deep South cotton plantations.
86. SIAVO1_210524_479.JPG: Steamboat Model, 1850s Mississippi steamboats helped unite the nation by forming networks of people and goods, and supported the business of slavery by bringing cotton and slaves to market. These vessels also enabled enslaved and free black river-workers to carry news of family and friends up and down the river.
87. SIAVO1_210524_483.JPG: Stereoview showing slaves in a cotton field in the southern United States, 1860s
88. SIAVO1_210524_486.JPG: The Slave Trade More than ten million Africans were forcefully imported as part of the transatlantic slave trade between the 1600s and early 1800s. The majority went to the Caribbean and South America. At least 388,000 were brought to the United States before U.S. law banned importation in 1808. Slavery and the debates about its morality continued. The end of legal importation and the economic viability of cotton in the Deep South contributed to the development of a thriving internal slave trade in the United States.
89. SIAVO1_210524_488.JPG: Manifest from the slave ship Lafayette, 1833 Virginia to Louisiana Before the Civil War the U.S. internal slave trade accounted for the forced migration of up to a million enslaved people from the Upper South to the cotton plantations of the Deep South. The eighty-three enslaved people onboard the Lafayette were shipped from an Alexandria, Virginia, slave market for sale in New Orleans, Louisiana.
90. SIAVO1_210524_500.JPG: Benjamin Latrobe drawing showing an African-inspired musical instrument seen at Congo Square, New Orleans, 1819 Black New Orleans Antebellum New Orleans was home to a diverse population of whites, creoles, and enslaved and free blacks. As early as 1818, visitors commented on the mix of cultures in the city's public squares where hundreds of people of African descent gathered every Sunday afternoon to sing, play musical instruments, and dance.
91. SIAVO1_210524_505.JPG: Hiram Wilson, founder of Wilson Pottery, Capote, Texas, 1860–1884 Slavery Spreads West Texas entered the Union as a slave state in 1845, leading many southerners to migrate across the Mississippi taking the institution of slavery with them. In 1856 James Wilson took twenty slaves, including Hiram Wilson, to Texas to establish a stoneware pottery. After Emancipation, the freedmen founded a successful pottery and the free black town of Capote.
92. SIAVO1_210524_509.JPG: Jar made by freed black potters at Wilson Pottery, Capote, Texas, 1869–1884
93. SIAVO1_210524_514.JPG: The Migration of Free Frank McWorter Although most of the two million enslaved people in the United States had few options, they often took risks to shape their own lives and gain freedom. Frank McWorter planned his freedom for many years. As a slave, he saved money, purchased his wife's freedom, and then negotiated his own from a Kentucky planter in 1819 at age forty-two. Soon after he purchased his oldest son. In 1830 McWorter migrated with free family members to the Illinois frontier near the Mississippi River, where he established a farm and the community of New Philadelphia. Over his lifetime he was able to purchase his remaining thirteen family members.
94. SIAVO1_210524_517.JPG: Wash Basin and Pitcher, Owned by Solomon McWorter, 1800s The Free Frank McWorter Family Though living in the free state of Illinois, the family was never entirely safe from slave catchers who moved along the Mississippi River before the Civil War. The McWorters remained in the community of New Philadelphia for generations as farmers and artisans.
95. SIAVO1_210524_528.JPG: Civil War Uniform Button, around 1860 This Union Army button likely came from the uniform of Squire McWorter Jr. or his uncle Thomas Clark.
96. SIAVO1_210524_533.JPG: Chair, made by Solomon McWorter, 1800s Free Frank McWorter's son Solomon resided near the community of New Philadelphia. He was a farmer and cabinetmaker, as well as the inventor of an evaporator to extract syrup from sorghum. Business receipts indicate that he had a cabinetmaking firm with his white partner, James Pottle. Solomon made this chair for his grandchild.
97. SIAVO1_210524_538.JPG: Receipt for purchase of Charlotte Cowan, granddaughter of Free Frank, from slavery, around 1857 After Free Frank McWorter's death, his son Solomon sold some of the family land to purchase freedom for Charlotte, Free Frank's granddaughter.
98. SIAVO1_210524_546.JPG: The Town of New Philadelphia Near the Mississippi River Free Frank McWorter turned his 160 acres of Illinois farmland into a cash operation by transporting his produce to the Mississippi River for sale. With the purchase of additional acreage he established the first known town founded and platted by an African American, naming it New Philadelphia. Although the town prospered for decades, New Philadelphia later declined. Over time he sold lots to both whites and African Americans. McWorter died before the Civil War having never experienced the benefits of citizenship that came with the Fourteenth Amendment.
99. SIAVO1_210524_550.JPG: Joseph Smith addressing the Nauvoo legion (militia), around 1843 Mormons in Nauvoo In 1839 Mormons left Missouri under duress, purchasing affordable land on the Mississippi River. In Nauvoo, they expected to find refuge from religious persecution. Joseph Smith, the Mormon founder, conceived of a large temple that was built to serve as the center of his community's ritual life. Mormons Driven Out of Nauvoo Joseph Smith never saw the completion of the temple. In 1844 a mob of angry townspeople in nearby Carthage killed Smith and his brother Hyrum as they were in prison awaiting trial on charges of inciting a riot. With their lives threatened, the Mormons dedicated their temple in 1846 and fled west. Later, arsonists burned much of the structure.
100. SIAVO1_210524_553.JPG: Religious and Utopian Communities on the Mississippi Though the United States promised freedoms, those who practiced different religions and ways of life were not always accepted. The Mormons of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the European utopian community of Icarians migrated to frontier Illinois, where they hoped to practice their faiths without interference. A large number of Mormons moved to the small community of Commerce, Illinois (renamed Nauvoo), where critics denounced their theological beliefs and worried about their political influence. Local citizens violently forced the Mormons out of Illinois in 1846. The Icarians soon moved to Nauvoo. They negotiated with the local community, creating ties through trade and social activities.
101. SIAVO1_210524_557.JPG: Slippers used in Mormon temple, around 1890 Plate, view of Mormon Temple in Nauvoo, around 1840
102. SIAVO1_210524_563.JPG: Dining chair made by Icarians, used in the Icarian dining hall, around 1850 Coat hanger made by Icarians, used by Icarian women, around 1850 The Icarian Community of Nauvoo Recognizing an opportunity to acquire buildings abandoned by the Mormons, the French communal society of Icarians left Texas and migrated up the Mississippi River. In 1849–1850 with their French founder, �tienne Cabet, they rebuilt Nauvoo. A number of Icarians broke with the founder and the Nauvoo community dissolved in 1856.
103. SIAVO1_210524_575.JPG: Incorporating Western Lands In the 1800s many Americans looked toward the Pacific world rather than the Atlantic. In 1846 the country declared war with Mexico to acquire western land. Declaring victory in 1848, the United States gained territory from Kansas to California. Further incursions pushed Native peoples to reservations. The 1848 discovery of gold in California, a new U.S. territory, drew people from across the world -- including Chinese migrants, who experienced hostility and restrictive laws. These stories take place in the West, where the Spanish Mexican Del Valle family, Chinese gold miners, and the Nez Perce all sought to negotiate their place in the United States.
104. SIAVO1_210524_578.JPG: Chinese shop sign, Shēn R�ng Y� Gu�, advertising medicinal goods, California, around 1890 Chinese in California The gold rush enticed many Chinese to leave home to seek their fortune in California. On arrival, immigrants found that tales of gold lying in the streets were a fantasy. To survive, many adjusted their expectations and found jobs on the railroad and in Chinese businesses.
105. SIAVO1_210524_583.JPG: Los Angeles Chinatown with shop signs, 1922
106. SIAVO1_210524_589.JPG: Pitcher, with scene from poem "Plain Language from Truthful James," around 1880 Chinese Exclusion White laborers considered the Chinese competition and responded with hostility. Californians led the effort to prohibit further Chinese immigration, encouraging passage of the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act. This pitcher illustrates a Bret Harte poem that rebuked a white cardshark cheating a Chinese man. It was misunderstood as a condemnation of the Chinese.
107. SIAVO1_210524_593.JPG: Gold Rush and the Peopling of California The discovery of gold in 1848 at Sutter's Mill spurred a great wave of migration to California. Hundreds of thousands of people descended on the territory from across the continent and across the oceans. Chinese were among the immigrants who joined Americans in the quest for gold. Competition for mining stakes led to tensions among the gold seekers, often resulting in discriminatory actions toward the Chinese.
108. SIAVO1_210524_605.JPG: View of San Francisco, around 1852
109. SIAVO1_210524_614.JPG: Gold rush assayers' ingot, 1850
110. SIAVO1_210524_622.JPG: Trunk used by William Sumner Johnson, around 1849 A Connecticut Gold Miner In 1849 William Sumner Johnson of Connecticut headed to San Francisco in search of gold. He wrote letters home to his wife about the circuitous route he took across the continent, by sea and on horseback.
111. SIAVO1_210524_626.JPG: Letter written by William Sumner Johnson to his wife, 1849 A Connecticut Gold Miner In 1849 William Sumner Johnson of Connecticut headed to San Francisco in search of gold. He wrote letters home to his wife about the circuitous route he took across the continent, by sea and on horseback.
112. SIAVO1_210524_629.JPG: Tataviam Sandstone Mortar and Pestle, used in the 1800s The Tataviam or Alliklik people were the first inhabitants of the region. Like many of California's Native peoples, they had largely been forced out or Christianized through the Spanish colonial Mission system by the early 1800s. About four hundred Tataviam lived at Rancho Camulos in 1839, many of whom were employed by the Del Valles.
113. SIAVO1_210524_636.JPG: The Del Valle Family As leaders in the social, cultural, and political life of southern California, Ygnacio and Ysabel Del Valle helped maintain the Californio identity of Mexican colonial Catholics, even after incorporation. They worked hard to keep their cultural identity, in part through family, language, and dress.
114. SIAVO1_210524_638.JPG: Incorporating Mexican California The incorporation of California meant that the thousands of Mexican people there could become citizens of the United States or could return to Mexico. Mexicans who had long been established in California struggled to retain their culture, property, and political influence as Americans set their sights on the territory. New U.S. laws were not extended equally to Mexicans in California. Unlike many Californio families, Ygnacio and Ysabel Del Valle were successful in maintaining legal ownership of their land.
115. SIAVO1_210524_646.JPG: Rancho Camulos Strict U.S. laws made it difficult for Californio families to prove ownership of their land. Unlike many, the Del Valles successfully established their claim. Rancho Camulos profited from the demand for cattle with the influx of people into California after 1848, and later diversified into citrus, grapes, and other crops.
116. SIAVO1_210524_655.JPG: Maintaining Californio Culture Ysabel Del Valle helped preserve the family's Californio identity through religion. She maintained strong ties with the Catholic Daughters of Charity in Los Angeles and established a Roman Catholic chapel at the rancho, where family and visitors celebrated their faith.
117. SIAVO1_210524_661.JPG: The Nez Perce and the Horse Nez Perce culture was distinguished by elaborate and ornamented horse trappings. Introduced by the Spanish in the 1600s, the horse greatly changed their way of life by the 1730s, extending possibilities for trade and transport and enlarging their hunting grounds. The Nez Perce learned the art of selective breeding, developing the spotted Appaloosa.
118. SIAVO1_210524_664.JPG: Nez Perce with their horses, 1900 The Nez Perce and the Horse Nez Perce culture was distinguished by elaborate and ornamented horse trappings. Introduced by the Spanish in the 1600s, the horse greatly changed their way of life by the 1730s, extending possibilities for trade and transport and enlarging their hunting grounds. The Nez Perce learned the art of selective breeding, developing the spotted Appaloosa.
119. SIAVO1_210524_666.JPG: Incorporating Nez Perce Lands Throughout the 1800s the United States incorporated lands on which Indians had lived for centuries. Supporting white gold miners and development of the trans-Pacific railroad in the Pacific Northwest, the U.S. government pressured the Nez Perce people into ceding their lands by exploiting divisions caused by Christianizing efforts. In 1855 several members of the Nez Perce nation negotiated with the United States and were persuaded to sign a treaty that required them to remain on a reservation. Later a group under Chief Joseph, refusing to sign a treaty that would greatly reduce their lands, fought back. They evaded capture but upon surrender were banished to military camps in Indian territory.
120. SIAVO1_210524_670.JPG: Chief Joseph, around 1890 Chief Joseph's Surrender Chief Joseph resisted U.S. efforts to take more land, after an initial treaty had greatly decreased the Nez Perce reservation. His people fought back against the U.S. Army for more than 1,500 miles. Chief Joseph's struggle to protect his displaced people, including children and elderly tribe members, touched the American public, yet this did not prevent their relocation.
121. SIAVO1_210524_673.JPG: Chief Joseph's surrender to General Miles, Montana Territory, 1877
122. SIAVO1_210524_682.JPG: Chief Tamason, who had converted to Christianity, was a delegate to Washington, D.C., for the Nez Perce, around 1880s Rabbit Skin Leggings, of the Nez Perce tribe, painted by George Catlin while in St. Louis, around 1831 Niimiipu, The Nez Perce By 1700 more than 4,500 Niimiipu lived in the Northwest plateau region, now the states of Washington, Idaho, and Oregon. In 1805 they saved members of the Lewis and Clark Expedition from starvation, receiving them with hospitality. English, American, and French fur trappers followed, with the French giving the Niimiipu the name of Nez Perce (pierced nose).
123. SIAVO1_210524_696.JPG: Expansion Beyond the Continent At the end of the 1800s the United States reached beyond the continent to annex the Pacific islands of Hawai'i, other territories in the South Pacific like the Philippines and Guam, and the Caribbean island of Puerto Rico. The United States helped to overthrow Hawaiian Queen Liliuokalani in 1893. In 1898 Hawai'i became a U.S. incorporated territory while Spain ceded Puerto Rico and the Philippines with the American victory in the Spanish-American War. All these islands were in strategic locations of commercial and military importance to the United States. The inclusion of these people made the nation's racial and religious character more diverse.
124. SIAVO1_210524_698.JPG: American Interests in Hawai'i With westerners' arrival and the establishment of pineapple and sugar plantations owned mainly by white Americans, Hawaiian islanders transitioned from a subsistence lifestyle to a cash economy. Thousands of low paid Asian laborers were recruited to work the fields.
125. SIAVO1_210524_701.JPG: Hawaiian pineapple plantation, around 1915 Pineapple trimming knife, 1900s
126. SIAVO1_210524_704.JPG: Harpoon, Hawaiian, 1800s
127. SIAVO1_210524_706.JPG: Ukulele, instrument developed in Hawai'i, 1950s
128. SIAVO1_210524_711.JPG: King David Kalakaua, around 1875 Native Hawaiian Culture and Sovereignty King Kamehameha the Great, of the Big Island of Hawai'i, established a constitutional monarchy in 1810 governing over 400,000 native Hawaiians. Hawaiian monarchs developed a national coinage and flag and encouraged aspects of native culture even as they developed a European-style monarchy.
129. SIAVO1_210524_723.JPG: From Hawaiian Nation to an American State With the Hawaiian lands "discovered" by the Englishman Captain James Cook in 1778, Western traders, missionaries, explorers, and whalers soon arrived with their own objectives. They drastically transformed native Hawaiian ways on the Islands. In 1959, nearly two hundred years later, Hawai'i became an American state.
130. SIAVO1_210524_730.JPG: Coin of the Hawaiian Kingdom, 1800s
131. SIAVO1_210524_733.JPG: Coin of the Hawaiian Kingdom, 1800s
132. SIAVO1_210524_739.JPG: Bomba drum, around 1980
133. SIAVO1_210524_742.JPG: Acquiring Puerto Rico from Spain In early 1898 Spain allowed Puerto Ricans to establish an autonomous government just before the Spanish-American War erupted that spring. With American victory Spain ceded Puerto Rico. It became a U.S. territory and was renamed Porto Rico by Americans in the early 1900s.
134. SIAVO1_210524_748.JPG: Santo, sculpture of religious veneration, 1800s
135. SIAVO1_210524_761.JPG: Sugar sack, Porto Rican American Sugar Refinery, 1900s An American Commonwealth Puerto Rico's strategic location was useful as an American refueling station and naval base, and its raw materials such as sugar supplied many American businesses. With costs of business excessive -- and without access to credit -- many Puerto Ricans sold their extensive sugar plantations to American companies after the Spanish-American War. The U.S. Congress provided U.S. citizenship status in 1917 and named the country a Commonwealth in 1951.
136. SIAVO1_210524_774.JPG: Tiple, Puerto Rican stringed instrument, early 1900s Creole Culture in Puerto Rico From first settlement, the Spanish mixed with indigenous peoples. When Spanish administrators, military officers, and clergy colonized Puerto Rico in the 1700s they invested in the land, established families and businesses, and formed a multiracial creole culture. In the 1800s slaves, mulattoes, and free blacks worked the sugar and coffee plantations, and contributed to the island culture. Expressive musical, artistic, and religious traditions developed as singularly Puerto Rican.
137. SIAVO1_210524_776.JPG: Acquiring Puerto Rico from Spain In early 1898 Spain allowed Puerto Ricans to establish an autonomous government just before the Spanish-American War erupted that spring. With American victory Spain ceded Puerto Rico. It became a U.S. territory and was renamed Porto Rico by Americans in the early 1900s.
138. SIAVO1_210524_782.JPG: Education: In the Schoolroom Public schools have long served to assimilate immigrants into American society. In the late 1800s, they helped to create a shared culture and a common language with patriotic imagery, symbols, recitations, and pageantry. Many families embraced assimilation. Others resisted, choosing to maintain ties to their religion, languages, and customs through private schooling. African Americans had fewer choices and were forced to attend segregated public schools until the 1954 Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education.
139. SIAVO1_210524_787.JPG: Assimilation through Public Schools Public schools encouraged the incorporation of newcomers with programs and images intended to inspire patriotism. In most classrooms, American flags hung alongside images of the American eagle and George Washington. Spellers and dictionaries helped standardize American-style spelling and pronunciation, so children learned English regardless of their parents' language.
140. SIAVO1_210524_792.JPG: Hebrew mini Scrabble educational toy, 1950s
141. SIAVO1_210524_798.JPG: Catholic uniform, 1945 Resisting Assimilation Many people chose to resist assimilation efforts and to maintain their religion, culture, and language by sending their children to private schools. Catholics created parochial schools to sustain their religious traditions; Jewish schools provided faith-based lessons, rituals, and language instruction; and Chinese American schools taught traditional theater, music, language, calligraphy, and literature.
142. SIAVO1_210524_804.JPG: Public school desk, 1905–1920
143. SIAVO1_210524_808.JPG: Student slate, 1870–1885 Patriotic pencil box, 1900–1902
144. SIAVO2_210524_002.JPG: Urban Landscape Takes Shape As waves of people moved into the city, neighborhoods grew and transformed. Ethnic neighborhoods offered residents economic and social support. Over time, some residents transitioned to other areas of the city and into surrounding suburbs. New populations then moved into old neighborhoods and made them their own.
145. SIAVO2_210524_005.JPG: Architect's rendering of On Leong Merchants Association Building, 1926 Creating a New Chinatown Chinese immigrants first settled in downtown Chicago in the early 1870s. They were forced out by issues such as rising rents and anti-Chinese sentiment. Chicago's existing Chinese community relocated to the South Side in 1912. Chinatown provided residents support and economic opportunity; its businesses attracted people from around the city. The On Leong Merchants Association represented the community, assisted new immigrants, and organized cultural events.
146. SIAVO2_210524_012.JPG: Eugene Kung, a Paper Son living in Chinatown, 1940 Chinese Immigration Eugene Kung came to Chicago as a so-called Paper Son. Only the sons of Chinese American citizens were allowed into the United States after the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act. In order to enter the United States, Paper Sons purchased and assumed false identities at great personal risk. They memorized biographical information, such as this document, to convince examiners.
147. SIAVO2_210524_016.JPG: Reproduction of Paper Son training book belonging to Eugene Kung, 1939
148. SIAVO2_210524_018.JPG: Architectural fragment from Julian Theater, opened in 1909 Lakeview, Swedetown Chicago's Swedish community of Lakeview was well established by the early 1900s. Throughout the 1930s, the Julian Theater in Lakeview played Swedish movies with English subtitles. Mostly viewed by nostalgic and proud Swedes, the movies also drew diverse audiences from around Chicago to the neighborhood.
149. SIAVO2_210524_023.JPG: Reproduction of Julian Theater program, 1930s–1940s Lakeview, Swedetown Chicago's Swedish community of Lakeview was well established by the early 1900s. Throughout the 1930s, the Julian Theater in Lakeview played Swedish movies with English subtitles. Mostly viewed by nostalgic and proud Swedes, the movies also drew diverse audiences from around Chicago to the neighborhood.
150. SIAVO2_210524_026.JPG: Pipe belonging to a Czech Pilsen household, 1900–1915 Candlestick carried with immigrants to Pilsen, 1882 Pilsen Pilsen, on the Lower West Side of the city, was home to working-class European immigrants during the 19th and early 20th centuries. Named after a city in eastern Europe, Pilsen was the heart of the Czech community from the 1870s to the 1950s.
151. SIAVO2_210524_033.JPG: Francis D. Nemecek, Pilsen photographer, 1903–1951 Czech Pilsen Social organizations called sokols hosted events and dances that brought the community together. Czech-owned businesses sustained the neighborhood. The Nemecek photography studio in Pilsen documented the activities of the community.
152. SIAVO2_210524_038.JPG: Mexican Pilsen Emerges In the 1960s Pilsen emerged as the center of Chicago's Mexican community as Czech residents moved to better quality housing elsewhere. Mexicans had fewer options. Forced out of their long-established communities due to construction projects, many found a home in Pilsen. There they established businesses, hosted community celebrations, and fostered a culture of political activism.
153. SIAVO2_210524_040.JPG: Chicago: City of Neighborhoods By 1890 Chicago was booming with a population of one million; 80% were either foreign born or the children of immigrants. As in many cities, Chicago's residents responded to increasing diversity in different ways. Some newcomers moved to be near others of the same nationality or religion. Many struggled to improve their living conditions, but race often determined opportunity. Reformers organized to provide social services for diverse groups of immigrants, many of whom were impoverished and exploited.
154. SIAVO2_210524_045.JPG: Creating Community: Chicago and Los Angeles, 1900–1965 The years between 1900 and 1965 saw massive population growth and change in the United States. Immigrants and migrants were pulled to U.S. cities by the abundance of semi-skilled and low-skilled jobs, as well as other economic opportunities offered by an industrializing society. The foreign-born encountered and competed with Americans of African, Mexican, Asian, and European descent. Cities became arenas of engagement where newcomers and the native-born negotiated their place in a changing nation. These stories about Chicago and Los Angeles illustrate some of the ways diverse people created and re-created neighborhoods and worked to form community in America's cities.
155. SIAVO2_210524_048.JPG: Los Angeles: City of Promise Since its founding in 1781, Los Angeles has been under Spanish, Mexican, and American flags. By the 1930s it had grown into one of the world's largest and most diverse metropolitan areas. Like Chicago, Los Angeles drew people from around the country and the globe with the promise of better jobs and freedom to pursue broader opportunities. While many came and prospered, others faced challenges. Many Hollywood stars Anglicized their surnames to succeed there; Mexican immigrants had limited opportunities and ultimately faced mass deportation; and, during World War II, Japanese Americans were forcibly removed from their homes and businesses.
156. SIAVO2_210524_051.JPG: Outdoor neon marquee sign from La Esperanza, around 1950 The red, white, and green colors of La Esperanza's sign reflect the Mexican heritage of Ezequiel Moreno, owner of the bakery. The anchor symbolizes hope and establishing roots in his new country.
157. SIAVO2_210524_055.JPG: La Esperanza, La Plaza/El Pueblo, downtown Los Angeles, around 1950s Coming Together in La Plaza Ezequiel Moreno, a native of Zacatecas, Mexico, started a bakery in his home in 1918, and in the 1920s moved to La Plaza in the heart of downtown Los Angeles. He named the bakery La Esperanza, meaning hope. Soon it was frequented by customers across many segments of the Los Angeles community. Mexican immigrants, downtown employees, and Hollywood movie stars came for bread, coffee, traditional Mexican dishes, and "American-style" lunches. A nearby Japanese-owned grocery store specialized in Mexican products. The families that owned the businesses developed close personal and professional ties. Ezequiel Moreno in front of La Esperanza, around 1940s This dinnerware was used by customers at La Esperanza, a bakery and restaurant that flourished in downtown Los Angeles from the 1920s to the 1970s. Catering to the diverse communities that lived and worked in and around downtown, La Esperanza served both Mexican and American foods.
158. SIAVO2_210524_059.JPG: Japanese Americans in Los Angeles The Shishimas owned a small grocery store near La Esperanza and made their home on the second floor above the popular bakery. The two families worked together, supported one another, and celebrated each other's successes. Following Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, people of Japanese ancestry living on the West Coast were feared to be enemies. Under Executive Order 9066 the U.S. War Relocation Authority removed the Shishima family and many other Japanese Americans to incarceration camps. Families lost their jobs, homes, businesses, and most of their possessions.
159. SIAVO2_210524_063.JPG: Takeshi and Bill Shishima as children inside Mercado Plaza, the family store, around 1928
160. SIAVO2_210524_065.JPG: Shishima family in Manzanar incarceration camp, around 1942
161. SIAVO2_210524_069.JPG: Incarceration camp ID tag, around 1942 Weeks after Japan's bombing of Pearl Harbor, President Franklin D. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066, which led to the mass incarceration of 120,000 Japanese and Japanese Americans in camps. They were required to wear identification tags in the camps, or to attach them to personal items during transit.
162. SIAVO2_210524_080.JPG: Reproduction of Civilian Exclusion Order Instruction Poster, 1942 These instructions directed all persons of Japanese descent to report for evacuation to remote incarceration camps in the American interior.
163. SIAVO2_210524_088.JPG: Bowl from La Esperanza, around 1950 Sugar container from La Esperanza, around 1950 Dining at La Esperanza This dinnerware was used by customers at La Esperanza, a bakery and restaurant that flourished in downtown Los Angeles from the 1920s to the 1970s. Catering to the diverse communities that lived and worked in and around downtown, La Esperanza served both Mexican and American foods.
164. SIAVO2_210524_090.JPG: New Americans, Continuing Debates, 1965–2000 The United States experienced a resurgence in immigration after passing the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 (Hart-Celler Act). Improved transportation and communication technologies allowed people to live in this nation while still staying connected to their country of origin. New immigrants had much in common with those who came before: they sought better economic opportunities, greater freedoms, and safer lives. Likewise, they sometimes faced issues of equality and inclusion. These stories about the new American South, the Southwest borderlands, and transnational lives illustrate the ways diverse people have negotiated race, heritage, and culture.
165. SIAVO2_210524_093.JPG: President Lyndon Johnson speaking on the Hart-Celler Act, 1965 A New Era of Immigration: The Hart-Celler Act of 1965 As immigration policies changed the American ethnic landscape, the news media reflected debates, negotiations, and social and cultural changes throughout the nation.
166. SIAVO2_210524_100.JPG: Religion: Places of Worship Freedom of religion is an ideal that has contributed to remarkable religious and cultural diversity in the United States. Especially in recent decades, additional global religious groups have found the opportunity to worship freely here. Although religious beliefs sometimes divide people along ethnic or cultural lines, they can also bring diverse peoples together in shared faith and values. Faith-based groups often help integrate migrants into established communities, provide support in navigating life in America, and teach shared values and ideals that encourage broader civic involvement.
167. SIAVO2_210524_105.JPG: A Segregated Game Before Jackie Robinson broke the color barrier in 1947, the exclusion of African Americans from major league baseball reflected racial segregation across the United States. The Negro Leagues offered African Americans the opportunity to play ball.
168. SIAVO2_210524_112.JPG: Newsletter, "Fighting Americans, Too," Volunteers for Victory, Topaz, Utah, 1943 Fighting for Respect The U.S. armed forces were racially segregated until 1948. African Americans launched a "Double V" campaign for victory against enemies abroad and against discrimination at home. Japanese American service members proclaimed their loyalty, even as their families were forced into U.S. incarceration camps. Mexican American veterans organized to fight for access to education, jobs, and the ballot box. Military: In the Barracks and On the Homefront In war and in peace, American military service has brought together people from across the nation. During World War II millions of men and women serving in the armed forces collaborated with others of different backgrounds and beliefs. Yet the military and defense industries were segregated and reinforced broader patterns of prejudice until presidential executive orders outlawed discrimination in the military. Service in the armed forces has bolstered demands for fair treatment in civilian life and since 1952 has provided a direct path to citizenship.
169. SIAVO2_210524_114.JPG: Called to Service In the 1940s more than 12 million men and 300,000 women left their homes to join the armed forces. Millions of others worked to supply the military. The draft ordered men of all races, religions, education levels, and professions into service, uniting diverse Americans in the same uniform and cause.
170. SIAVO2_210524_121.JPG: Reproduction of wartime poster supporting an executive order against discrimination in defense industries, 1942 Called to Service In the 1940s more than 12 million men and 300,000 women left their homes to join the armed forces. Millions of others worked to supply the military. The draft ordered men of all races, religions, education levels, and professions into service, uniting diverse Americans in the same uniform and cause.
171. SIAVO2_210524_122.JPG: Reproduction of "A Yankee Doodle Tan (The ‘Double V' Song)" sheet music, 1942
172. SIAVO2_210524_125.JPG: Insignia from segregated African American units, around World War II
173. SIAVO2_210524_151.JPG: Negotiating Freedom
174. SIAVO2_210524_166.JPG: Negotiating Equality
175. SIAVO2_210524_178.JPG: Immokalee Statue of Liberty, by Kat Rodriguez, 2000 The statue's original pedestal (not shown) features a simple message borrowed from African American poet Langston Hughes: "I, too, am America." This Lady Liberty holds a basket of tomatoes to represent the work of agricultural laborers. Marching with Liberty In 2000 agricultural activists carried this contemporary interpretation of the Statue of Liberty on a two-week, 230-mile March for Dignity, Dialogue, and a Fair Wage. The protest was organized in Florida by the Coalition of Immokalee Workers (CIW). The CIW brought together diverse, interracial groups including agricultural workers, environmentalists, and community organizers, to negotiate for better working conditions and higher wages in the agricultural industry.
176. SIAVO2_210524_184.JPG: Work: In the Garment Industry In the U.S. workplace, people often interact with others from different backgrounds. Workplace issues and the advantages of collective action at times superseded ethnic loyalties and prejudices. The garment industry is one example where diverse groups of immigrant workers have joined together in unions to demand better treatment and increased wages. Since the late 1800s garment workers, many of them immigrants, have suffered low wages, long hours, and unhealthy environments. They have come together with human rights organizations to negotiate for better conditions in the workplace, establishing fair wages, job safety, reasonable hours, and child labor restrictions across the country.
177. SIAVO2_210524_187.JPG: Uniting for Rights In 1995, seventy-two undocumented Thai immigrants were rescued from a sweatshop in El Monte, California, where they were held captive. This highly publicized case brought attention to illegal sweatshops. It became a call to action for garment workers and advocates, who came together in unions and human rights organizations to fight for better labor conditions.
178. SIAVO2_210524_190.JPG: History of Fighting for Change Demand for inexpensive, mass-produced fashion spurred the rise of early garment factories. In March 1911 New York City's Triangle Shirtwaist Company factory burned, killing nearly 150 mostly immigrant workers who had been locked in. The tragedy brought widespread attention to labor conditions. Workers united in a movement leading to laws and regulations protecting laborers.
179. SIAVO2_210524_196.JPG: Badge, International Ladies' Garment Worker's Union, 1940
180. SIAVO2_210524_199.JPG: Stampholder, 1909–1925
181. SIAVO2_210524_209.JPG: Heritage in Dress Dress and community celebrations have long reflected cultural and ethnic identities. This African costume from the musical group Sweet Honey in the Rock, and the Puerto Rican Carnival costume reflect customs and traditions of Africa, and the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico. Multiethnic diversity celebrated and embraced in the home, in performances, or on the streets is part of the social and cultural landscape of the United States.
182. SIAVO2_210524_213.JPG: Embracing America's Cultural Diversity
183. SIAVO2_210524_216.JPG: U.S. Customs and Border Protection Border protection in the United States has evolved since its inception in 1924, but its primary mission remains the same: to guard the nation's borders and to prevent the unauthorized entry of people and goods into the United States. These pieces of a uniform were worn by border agents while they patrolled the U.S.-Mexico border from 1998 through 2003.
184. SIAVO2_210524_221.JPG: Lost in Transit Some people without documentation have crossed harsh terrains along the Mexico border to enter the United States. These objects reflect the measures they took to migrate despite treacherous conditions. Others, primarily Mexicans who live and work along the border, have been granted special identification cards allowing them to cross for 72 hours.
185. SIAVO2_210524_227.JPG: Border Debates The Border Patrol was created in 1924 to enforce U.S. laws excluding Chinese laborers and preventing the spread of illicit activities south of the U.S.-Mexico line. Almost immediately, the Department of Labor's Bureau of Immigration realized that controlling migration across the border was difficult. After the 1965 Hart-Celler Act, the number of immigrants crossing the U.S.-Mexico border who did not possess valid visas significantly increased due to strict policies regulating and restricting U.S. immigration. Three decades later, the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) supported transborder economies, which drew people north across the border.
186. SIAVO2_210524_229.JPG: Cartoon from California newspaper, depicting perceived vice on the U.S.-Mexico border, around 1924
187. SIAVO2_210524_234.JPG: Border fence between Mexicali and Calexico This border fence separated the Mexican city of Mexicali from the U.S. city of Calexico, California. The first fence was erected in 1919 and then expanded in the 1940s. In 1998 this chain-link fence was removed and replaced with a more substantial metal barrier.
188. SIAVO2_210524_237.JPG: Southwest Borderlands: Confluence and Conflict The United States and Mexico have shaped each other's borders, identities, and cultures over hundreds of years. The U.S.-Mexico border is often portrayed today as a site of sharp political and ethnic divisions. Yet shared history, commerce, and labor contribute to the rich and dynamic culture along the nearly two-thousand-mile border spanning California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas.
189. SIAVO2_210524_239.JPG: Car hood made by Victor's Paint and Body Shop, Chimay�, New Mexico, 1991 La Virgen The Virgin of Guadalupe is a religious icon that takes on special cultural significance in the U.S.-Mexico borderlands. La Virgen symbolizes empowerment for mestizos, those of mixed indigenous and European descent. The frequently used icon blends culture, racial identity, and religious devotion.
190. SIAVO2_210524_241.JPG: Dynamic Border Culture The land around the U.S.-Mexico border has been defined by interactions among multiple cultural groups, including Native Americans, Mexicans, white settlers, and migrants from around the globe. It is an area where cultures and identities are created, blended, and negotiated. The borderlands show us that multiple stories of racial and ethnic difference make up America.
191. SIAVO2_210524_244.JPG: Tarima and shoes used by Martha Gonzalez in California, 1999 Music along the California borderlands mixes dynamic sounds of R&B and salsa with traditional rhythms from across the globe. These shoes and tarima were used by Martha Gonzalez of the Grammy-winning band Quetzal. The tarima, a stomp box with roots in African and Mexican musical traditions, is used like a drum.
192. SIAVO2_210524_249.JPG: Accordion used by Flaco Jim�nez in Texas, around 2009 The accordion became a popular instrument to accompany corridos, or ballads, at the turn of the 19th century. The accordion continues to be heard in caf�s and music halls throughout Texas and the Southwest.
193. SIAVO2_210524_257.JPG: Transnational Lives Some immigrants lead transnational lives, building global networks by traveling regularly between the United States and their homelands for business, social, or diplomatic reasons. They often retain ties to their homelands, sending remittances through money and goods to family and communities in their home countries. Others are drawn back to their homelands by job opportunities, family obligations, or homesickness. Some are required to leave the United States because of legal restrictions, and others choose to leave because of discrimination.
194. SIAVO2_210524_259.JPG: Family Here and There The 1965 Hart-Celler Act focused on reuniting families and recruiting professionals to the United States. American agencies aggressively recruited Filipino workers, and the Philippine government promoted the emigration of many types of laborers, even though workers were needed in the Philippines as well. For seven years the Lares family lived a transnational life between the United States and the Philippines. Without money to visit one another, they found creative ways to keep in touch and support one another -- before the Internet, cell phones, and inexpensive international calling.
195. SIAVO2_210524_264.JPG: A Balikbayan Box, A Care Package
196. SIAVO2_210524_270.JPG: Staying in Touch While they lived apart, the Lares family wrote letters, recorded their voices, and sent gifts back and forth. Napoleon Lares played recordings of his daughters' voices every day and sent this T-shirt back to the Philippines for the youngest. Before the girls emigrated they filled out notebooks to remember their Filipino friends.
197. SIAVO2_210524_282.JPG: Remittances Migrants who work in the United States frequently send remittances, money and goods for family or friends in their countries of origin. In the late 1900s the areas receiving the largest amount of U.S. remittances were Mexico, India, China, the Philippines, the Caribbean, and many African countries. This money sustains families and communities abroad, and contributes substantially to some home countries' economies.
198. SIAVO2_210524_291.JPG: Da Vinci robotic arm, developed around 2000 Robotic Arm The Vattikuti Urology Institute at Detroit's Henry Ford Hospital pioneered the use of robots in medical procedures. The Vattikuti Foundation established a global network of institutes that train doctors to use da Vinci robots for minimally invasive surgeries.
199. SIAVO2_210524_295.JPG: O-1 visa for "persons with extraordinary ability," 2006-2009 Giving Back at Home and Abroad The Vattikuti Foundation has established multiple institutes in India and Europe where they train doctors to conduct cutting-edge robotic surgical procedures that have been used in the United States. A special professional visa for "persons with extraordinary ability" was given to Dr. Mahendra Bhandari, the director of the Vattikuti foundation.
200. SIAVO2_210524_299.JPG: Working Across Nations The 1965 Hart-Celler Act provided for the issuing of special O-1 visas for skilled workers, encouraging professionals to emigrate. The new legislation led to an increased number of professionals arriving from India and other countries. Debates continue about guest workers and how they affect competition for jobs in the United States. In the 21st century, people of South and East Asia have become one of the largest immigrant groups. Some arrive as doctors, engineers, and highly trained workers. Many contribute knowledge, skills, and resources to innovate technologies in the United States and in their countries of origin.
201. SIAVO2_210524_302.JPG: Expertise Travels Globally This lab coat belonged to Dr. Mani Menon, an Indian American surgeon trained in India and the United States. His professional career led him to Detroit. Together with Raj Vattikuti and Dr. Mahendra Bhandari they established the Vattikuti Urology Institute to innovate robotic surgery.
202. SIAVO2_210524_315.JPG: Out of many ... voices ... stories ... lives we become U.S.
Multi Column: Number of columns of thumbnails to appear per page (normally defaults to 3): [1 col] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10]
AAA "Gem": AAA considers this location to be a "must see" point of interest. To see pictures of other areas that AAA considers to be Gems, click here.
Description of Subject Matter: Many Voices, One Nation
Opens Summer 2017 – Permanent
At the heart of this nation lies a great search for balance between unity and pluralism. Many Voices, One Nation presents the five-hundred-year journey of how many distinct peoples and cultures met, mingled, and created the culture of the United States. Migrations brought new peoples, new languages, new religions, new ideas, and new technological innovations into the American experience. The result was a dynamic society embodied in cultural and technological innovations. As the people (populus) change, the one (unum) also changes to incorporate the newest members of the nation, including those just arrived and those just born. From its earliest beginnings to the 21st century, this exhibition maps the cultural geography of those unique and complex stories that animate the Latin emblem on the Great Seal and our national ideal: E pluribus unum; Out of many, one.
Bigger photos? To save server space, the full-sized versions of these images have either not been loaded to the server or have been removed from the server. (Only some pages are loaded with full-sized images and those usually get removed after three months.) I still have them though. If you want me to email them to you, please send an email to guthrie.bruce@gmail.com and I can email them to you, or, depending on the number of images, just repost the page again will the full-sized images.
Directly Related Pages: Other pages with content (DC -- Natl Museum of American History -- Exhibit: Many Voices, One Nation) directly related to this one: [Display ALL photos on one page]:
- 2017_DC_SIAH_Many_Voices: DC -- Natl Museum of American History -- Exhibit: Many Voices, One Nation (25 photos from 2017)
- 2016_DC_SIAH_Many_Voices: DC -- Natl Museum of American History -- Exhibit: Many Voices, One Nation (8 photos from 2016)
Same Subject: Click on this link to see coverage of items having the same subject: [(Smithsonian) American History Museum (Everything)] [(Smithsonian) American History Museum (Non-Events)] [Museums (History)]
2021 photos: This year, which started with former child president's attempted coup and the continuation of the COVID-19 pandemic, gradually got better. Trips this year: (May, October) After getting fully vaccinated, I made two trips down to Asheville, NC to visit my dad and his wife Dixie, and (mid-July) I made a quick trip up to Stockbridge, MA to see the Norman Rockwell Museum again as well as Daniel Chester French's place @ Chesterwood. Equipment this year: I continued to use my Fuji XS-1 cameras but, depending on the event, I also used a Nikon D7000. Number of photos taken this year: about 283,000, up slightly from 2020 levels but still really low.
Connection Not Secure messages? Those warnings you get from your browser about this site not having secure connections worry some people. This means this site does not have SSL installed (the link is http:, not https:). That's bad if you're entering credit card numbers, passwords, or other personal information. But this site doesn't collect any personal information so SSL is not necessary. Life's good!
Limiting Text: You can turn off all of this text by clicking this link: [Thumbnails Only]
Photo Contact: [Email Bruce Guthrie].