BGuthrie Photos: DC -- Natl Museum of American History -- Exhibit: Executive Order 9066

DC -- Natl Museum of American History -- Exhibit: Executive Order 9066:

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Description of Pictures: Executive Order 9066
February 17, 2017 – February 19, 2018
February 19, 2017, is the 75th anniversary of the signing of Executive Order 9066. This three-page document signed by Franklin D. Roosevelt changed the course of history for a segment of Americans of Japanese ancestry in America, and challenged the constitutional rights of these Americans. The National Museum of American History will commemorate the event through an exhibition marking its anniversary.
Curators are actively reaching out to the Japanese American community to help identify and collect artifacts for this powerful exhibit. These artifacts are crucial in leading the public memory to understand the many narratives of Japanese American imprisonment during WWII.

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Copyrights: All pictures were taken by amateur photographer Bruce Guthrie (me!) who retains copyright on them. Free for non-commercial use with attribution. See the [Creative Commons] definition of what this means. "Photos (c) Bruce Guthrie" is fine for attribution. (Commercial use folks including AI scrapers can of course contact me.) Feel free to use in publications and pages with attribution but you don't have permission to sell the photos themselves. A free copy of any printed publication using any photographs is requested. Descriptive text, if any, is from a mixture of sources, quite frequently from signs at the location or from official web sites; copyrights, if any, are retained by their original owners.

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Specific picture descriptions: Photos above with "i" icons next to the bracketed sequence numbers (e.g. "[1] ") are described as follows:
1. SIAHR1_170217_008.JPG: Righting a Wrong: Japanese Americans and World War II After Japan attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, and the United States entered a war in Europe and the Pacific, the nation was overcome by shock, anger, and fear -- a fear exaggerated by long-standing anti-Asian prejudice. Ten weeks later President Franklin Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, under which nearly 75,000 American citizens of Japanese ancestry were taken into custody. Another 45,000 Japanese nationals living in the United States (but long denied citizenship because of their race) were also incarcerated. Some forty years later, members of the Japanese American community led the nation to confront the wrong it had done -- and to make it right.
2. SIAHR1_170217_011.JPG: Evacuees were allowed to bring only what they could carry. The Watanabe family brought this suitcase marked by identification number 17703 with them to the Minidoka camp in Idaho.
3. SIAHR1_170217_022.JPG: The Fuchigami family used this baggage tag with the number 20480 assigned to their family when they were ordered to leave their peach and walnut farm. Twenty-year-old Bill Fuchigami wore this ID tag with the family number 20480 as he was transported first to a temporary detention center in California and then to the Amache camp in Colorado.
4. SIAHR1_170217_033.JPG: Kazuko Kita sent this hand-carved wooden pin through the mail to Ayako Sugino, who was held at a camp in Poston, Arizona.
5. SIAHR1_170217_046.JPG: Japanese Immigration Japanese immigrants arrived first on the Hawaiian Islands in the 1860s, to work in the sugarcane fields. Many moved to the U.S. mainland and settled in California, Oregon, and Washington, where they worked primarily as farmers and fishermen. Barred from participation in the country's legal or political systems, including citizenship, Japanese immigrants developed their own communities, creating education and business opportunities for themselves.
6. SIAHR1_170217_051.JPG: Japanese women laboring in Hawaiian sugarcane fields, 1918
7. SIAHR1_170217_053.JPG: Japanese Immigration Japanese immigrants arrived first on the Hawaiian Islands in the 1860s, to work in the sugarcane fields. Many moved to the U.S. mainland and settled in California, Oregon, and Washington, where they worked primarily as farmers and fishermen. Barred from participation in the country's legal or political systems, including citizenship, Japanese immigrants developed their own communities, creating education and business opportunities for themselves.
8. SIAHR1_170217_055.JPG: Racism All Asian immigrants faced prejudice, economic hardship, and social indignity. Those who came to the United States to work in mines, farms, and railroads accepted lower wages, which drew the ire of white residents. Asians became victims of riots and attacks. The 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act and the 1924 Asian Exclusion Act barred additional immigration and declared Asians ineligible for citizenship. Without citizenship, they could not own land. A resident of Hollywood, California, makes clear her sentiments to any Japanese looking for housing in her neighborhood, around 1923
9. SIAHR1_170217_061.JPG: Campaign poster for James D. Phelan (D-California) to the U.S. Senate, 1920
10. SIAHR1_170217_068.JPG: "These people were truly, in every sense, aliens. The color of their skins, the repulsiveness of their features, their undersize of figure, their incomprehensible language, strange customs, and heathen religion . . . conspired to set them apart." -- Hubert Howe Bancroft, History of California, 1890
11. SIAHR1_170217_077.JPG: Americans by Birth Though Japanese immigrants were denied citizenship, they put down roots in the United States and started families. Their children, born here, were Americans, entitled to the full rights and protections of citizenship. Both generations were part of a broader, diverse community, interacting with neighbors, coworkers, and classmates. But systems of segregation, both legal and informal, impacted their daily lives. Pledging allegiance to the flag at Raphael Weill Public School in San Francisco, 1942
12. SIAHR1_170217_083.JPG: "My grandfathers left little behind in Japan; both second sons of peasant farmers, they had no claim to family rice plots. Yet in California they discovered Alien Land laws of 1913 and 1920 that prevented ‘Orientals' from land purchases, singling out the immigrants from Asia and condemning a generation to life as laborers. But they stayed, working the fields for strangers. . . . They sacrificed so the next generation could have opportunity." -- David Mas Masumoto, 2002 The Shibuya family of Mountain View, California, 1942 Students at Raphael Weill Public School, 1942
13. SIAHR1_170217_087.JPG: The Shibuya family of Mountain View, California, 1942
14. SIAHR1_170217_089.JPG: Students at Raphael Weill Public School, 1942
15. SIAHR1_170217_092.JPG: Fear of the Rising Sun In an ominous prelude to World War II, Japanese forces surged through eastern China in 1937 and laid waste to Shanghai and Nanking. Japan's leaders proclaimed this the first step in creating a "new order." Japan had annexed Korea in 1910 and taken control of Manchuria in 1931. By 1941 Japan occupied resource-rich French Indochina (now Vietnam), then set its sights on Western colonies across the Pacific and Australia. Japan's advance threatened European and U.S. ambitions in the Pacific and fueled American fears of the "yellow peril." Political cartoon depicting Imperial Japan's desire for power, 1935
16. SIAHR1_170217_099.JPG: Fear of the Rising Sun In an ominous prelude to World War II, Japanese forces surged through eastern China in 1937 and laid waste to Shanghai and Nanking. Japan's leaders proclaimed this the first step in creating a "new order." Japan had annexed Korea in 1910 and taken control of Manchuria in 1931. By 1941 Japan occupied resource-rich French Indochina (now Vietnam), then set its sights on Western colonies across the Pacific and Australia. Japan's advance threatened European and U.S. ambitions in the Pacific and fueled American fears of the "yellow peril."
17. SIAHR1_170217_103.JPG: Political cartoon depicting Imperial Japan's desire for power, 1935
18. SIAHR1_170217_110.JPG: In response to long-standing anti-Asian prejudice and the perceived threat of resident Japanese, the sheriff of Hood River, Oregon, started this "watch list" of local Japanese families in 1937.
19. SIAHR1_170217_113.JPG: "Some future historian may trace a cause for a future U.S.–Japanese war to the fact that the generation which was preadolescent in America . . . received severe anti-Japanese prejudices through its curious liking for blowing bubbles with Blony gum." -- Life magazine, May 9, 1938 In 1938 Blony gum created a series of trading cards, packaged with bubblegum, titled "The Horrors of War." Many in the 288-card set showed Japanese atrocities against Chinese civilians, further fueling American fear of the "yellow peril."
20. SIAHR1_170217_124.JPG: In 1938 Blony gum created a series of trading cards, packaged with bubblegum, titled "The Horrors of War." Many in the 288-card set showed Japanese atrocities against Chinese civilians, further fueling American fear of the "yellow peril."
21. SIAHR1_170217_138.JPG: "Yesterday, December 7, 1941 -- a date which will live in infamy -- the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan. . ." -- President Franklin Roosevelt
22. SIAHR1_170217_141.JPG: Toku Shimomura of Seattle described in her diary hearing news of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, 1941 [transcription] December 7, 1941 When I came back from church today, I heard the dreamlike news that Japanese airplanes had bombed Hawaiʻi. I was shocked beyond belief. I sat in front of the radio and listened to the news all day. They said that at 6 a.m. Japan declared war on the United States. Our future has become gloomy. I pray that God will stay with us.
23. SIAHR1_170217_155.JPG: "The stables just reeked . . . of urine and horse manure. It was so degrading for people to live in those conditions. It's almost as if you're not talking about the way Americans treated Americans." -- Ernest Uno, around 1993 Moving Out The first stops for evacuees were hastily prepared temporary detention centers within the restricted military zones. These were fairgrounds and racetracks where inmates were housed, sometimes in livestock pavilions and horse stalls.
24. SIAHR1_170217_162.JPG: Stuffing their mattresses with straw, 1942
25. SIAHR1_170217_167.JPG: Leaving Bainbridge Island, Washington, 1942
26. SIAHR1_170217_170.JPG: Upon arrival, authorities inspected baggage for contraband such as weapons and liquor, but also shortwave radios and cameras.
27. SIAHR1_170217_174.JPG: The Okano Brothers Cut Rate Store in Los Angeles, 1942
28. SIAHR1_170217_188.JPG: "I don't want any of them here. They are a dangerous element. It makes no difference whether he is an American citizen, he is still a Japanese. [W]e must worry about the Japanese all the time until he is wiped off the map." -- General John DeWitt, Commander of the Western Defense Command, April 13, 1943
29. SIAHR1_170217_192.JPG: The Masuda family, owners of the Wanto Grocery in Oakland, California, proclaimed that they were American, even as they were forced to sell their business before they were incarcerated in August 1942.
30. SIAHR1_170217_204.JPG: "We must evacuate our homes and churches and be taken to strange places, and we will not know what will happen to us. . . . [O]urs is a strange exodus." -- The Reverend Lester Suzuki The Roundup Executive Order 9066 authorized the military to establish a War Relocation Authority. Military officers moved neighborhood by neighborhood to remove Japanese Americans and resident Japanese from the West Coast, acting on 108 different military "exclusion" orders. Three months after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Americans of Japanese ancestry and Japanese nationals living on the Pacific Coast and in southern Arizona were ordered to register and then report within a week to hastily designated temporary detention centers. They had only days to dispose of businesses, homes, cars, and pets -- which they sold at rock-bottom prices, gave away, or left behind.
31. SIAHR1_170217_211.JPG: Thirteen-year-old Harold Hayashi's mother wrote this note to his teacher asking that he be excused from school so he can pack for forced removal and requesting his school records. [transcript] Because of the recent evacua-tion orders, we will have to leave Berkeley on May 1; therefore, I would like to have Harold Hayashi, adv. #205, leave school to help me pack from today. I would also like to ask for a transfer for Harold so he may enter a school at the camp. Harold Hayashi's middle school picture, 1940 Anti-Japanese button, around 1942 Japanese immigrant Seisaku Aoyagi, who had lived in Hawai'i 36 years before the war, was issued this alien registration card.
32. SIAHR1_170217_215.JPG: Japanese immigrant Seisaku Aoyagi, who had lived in Hawai'i 36 years before the war, was issued this alien registration card.
33. SIAHR1_170217_225.JPG: Military Exclusion Zones
34. SIAHR1_170217_231.JPG: "We must evacuate our homes and churches and be taken to strange places, and we will not know what will happen to us. . . . [O]urs is a strange exodus." -- The Reverend Lester Suzuki The Roundup Executive Order 9066 authorized the military to establish a War Relocation Authority. Military officers moved neighborhood by neighborhood to remove Japanese Americans and resident Japanese from the West Coast, acting on 108 different military "exclusion" orders. Three months after the attack on Pearl Harbor, Americans of Japanese ancestry and Japanese nationals living on the Pacific Coast and in southern Arizona were ordered to register and then report within a week to hastily designated temporary detention centers. They had only days to dispose of businesses, homes, cars, and pets -- which they sold at rock-bottom prices, gave away, or left behind.
35. SIAHR1_170217_236.JPG: Many Americans were convinced that Japanese and Japanese Americans living on the West Coast posed a threat to homeland security. In this 1942 cartoon, even the normally whimsical Dr. Seuss envisioned them stocking up on explosives while awaiting direction from Japan to unleash terrorist attacks.
36. SIAHR1_170217_240.JPG: Posting the Exclusion Order, Bainbridge Island, Washington, 1942
37. SIAHR1_170217_244.JPG: Exclusion Order 69, 1942
38. SIAHR1_170217_267.JPG: With Executive Order 9066, President Franklin Roosevelt authorized the removal and incarceration of "any and all persons" from areas of the country deemed vulnerable to attack or sabotage. Pages 2 and 3 are reproductions.
39. SIAHR1_170217_270.JPG: Executive Order 9066 After Japan attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, and the United States entered a war in Europe and the Pacific, the nation was overcome by shock, anger, and fear -- a fear exaggerated by long-standing anti-Asian prejudice. Ten weeks later President Franklin Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, under which nearly 75,000 American citizens of Japanese ancestry were taken into custody. Another 45,000 Japanese nationals living in the United States (but long denied citizenship because of their race) were also incarcerated. Some forty years later, members of the Japanese American community successfully led the nation to confront the wrong it had done -- and to make it right. With Executive Order 9066, President Franklin Roosevelt authorized the removal and incarceration of "any and all persons" from areas of the country deemed vulnerable to attack or sabotage.
40. SIAHR1_170217_290.JPG: Camp Life The impact of living in the camps on people's sense of pride, dignity, and self-respect was enormous. Surrounded by barbed-wire fences -- and under the constant gaze of armed guards -- inmates endured the discomforts, forced regimens, and indignities of confinement. Even so, they strove to maintain some semblance of a normal life, starting schools, churches, and sports teams. But they were never able to escape from the reality that fear and racial prejudice had caused the U.S. government to strip them of their Constitutional rights.
41. SIAHR1_170217_294.JPG: Bill Fuchigami wore this ID tag while he was held at the Amache camp in Colorado. He was drafted from the camp and served in the Military Intelligence Service in Japan. James Watanabe was issued this work release identification card. Watanabe was among those allowed to leave the camps temporarily for seasonal jobs. June Shimizu made this corsage of pipe cleaners while she was held at the Tule Lake camp in California. Heart Mountain High School activity card for Frank Hirahara When Robert Murakami worked in the Jerome camp in Arkansas, he was paid $19 per month. Most worked within the camps for minimal wages.
42. SIAHR1_170217_297.JPG: Artist Mine Okubo drew these pieces for the literary magazine Trek, published at the Topaz camp. After seeing her work, Fortune magazine offered Okubo a job as an illustrator, and she was able to leave Topaz for New York City.
43. SIAHR1_170217_304.JPG: Artist Mine Okubo drew these pieces for the literary magazine Trek, published at the Topaz camp. After seeing her work, Fortune magazine offered Okubo a job as an illustrator, and she was able to leave Topaz for New York City.
44. SIAHR1_170217_305.JPG: Camp Life The impact of living in the camps on people's sense of pride, dignity, and self-respect was enormous. Surrounded by barbed-wire fences -- and under the constant gaze of armed guards -- inmates endured the discomforts, forced regimens, and indignities of confinement. Even so, they strove to maintain some semblance of a normal life, starting schools, churches, and sports teams. But they were never able to escape from the reality that fear and racial prejudice had caused the U.S. government to strip them of their Constitutional rights.
45. SIAHR1_170217_308.JPG: Mess hall line at Manzanar camp, 1942
46. SIAHR1_170217_310.JPG: Mess hall line at Manzanar camp, 1942
47. SIAHR1_170217_313.JPG: Mess hall line at Heart Mountain camp, 1942
48. SIAHR1_170217_316.JPG: Heart Mountain High School activity card for Frank Hirahara
49. SIAHR1_170217_322.JPG: James Watanabe was issued this work release identification card. Watanabe was among those allowed to leave the camps temporarily for seasonal jobs.
50. SIAHR1_170217_325.JPG: Bill Fuchigami wore this ID tag while he was held at the Amache camp in Colorado. He was drafted from the camp and served in the Military Intelligence Service in Japan.
51. SIAHR1_170217_329.JPG: June Shimizu made this corsage of pipe cleaners while she was held at the Tule Lake camp in California.
52. SIAHR1_170217_332.JPG: When Robert Murakami worked in the Jerome camp in Arkansas, he was paid $19 per month. Most worked within the camps for minimal wages.
53. SIAHR1_170217_335.JPG: The Language of Incarceration "We gave the fancy name of ‘relocation centers' to these dust bowls, but they were concentration camps nonetheless." -- Harold Ickes, Secretary of the Interior, 1946 In the 1940s, the War Relocation Authority, charged with implementing Executive Order 9066, used bureaucratic terminology to describe its operation. Scholars and members of the Japanese American community have since raised questions about how this language shaped or even distorted perceptions of the federal government's actions. They have developed alternate terminology to more accurately describe what happened, terms that are gradually becoming more widely accepted. We use these new terms throughout the exhibit.
  
  Original term Current term
  
  Exclusion Eviction
  
  Evacuation Forced removal
  
  Internment Incarceration
  
  Internee Inmate
  
  Assembly center Temporary detention center
  
  Relocation center Incarceration camp*
  
  *One of the most contested proposed changes in terminology is to designate the incarceration camps as concentration camps -- a term still closely associated with Nazi death camps.
54. SIAHR1_170217_339.JPG: Behind Barbed Wire Tens of thousands of Japanese Americans were incarcerated in desolate camps for up to four years. By the end of 1942, some 75,000 American citizens and another 45,000 Japanese nationals living in the United States found themselves uprooted from their homes and sent to one of ten inland American incarceration camps. They lived in temporary tar-paper barrack-like structures surrounded by barbed wire, searchlights and guard towers.
55. SIAHR1_170217_344.JPG: The War Relocation Authority managed ten camps, some with isolation centers, for individuals and families who had been removed from military "exclusion zones." All of the camps were remote; many were situated in desolate deserts or swamps. The U.S. Department of Justice administered twenty-seven additional camps where they imprisoned enemy aliens and "dangerous persons." These included Japanese -- as well as German and Italian -- nationals from across the United States, and thousands who were deported from Central and South America.
56. SIAHR1_170217_351.JPG: Italian inmates wander the grounds of the U.S Justice Department camp at Fort Missoula in Montana, 1942
57. SIAHR1_170217_355.JPG: Film and television actress Takayo Tsubouci Fischer on the set of Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End, around 2005
58. SIAHR1_170217_360.JPG: Takayo Tsubouchi Fischer first took to the stage in the Jerome camp in Arkansas, around 1943.
59. SIAHR1_170217_362.JPG: New inmates arrive by train to the camp in Rohwer, Arkansas, around 1943
60. SIAHR1_170217_375.JPG: Jingo Takeuchi, a Japanese language instructor was arrested March 1942 and sent to an enemy alien camp run by the Department of Justice in Sante Fe, New Mexico. His wife and four youngest sons were sent to the Topaz camps in Utah. After two years of appeals, the Takeuchi's were finally reunited at the family incarceration camp in Crystal City, Texas. Takeuchi made these traditional Japanese geta sandals for his nine-year-old son Goro while they were separated.
61. SIAHR1_170217_381.JPG: Joe Yamakido, a draft resister from the Jerome camp, made this belt from cigarette wrapper cellophane and aluminum foil while in federal prison in Texarkana, Texas.
62. SIAHR1_170217_384.JPG: High-Security Camps Arts and crafts were useful for filling idle time in prison and relocation camps. Even those who objected to their treatment and were sent to higher security camps or even federal prisons, found time to tinker. Chiura Obata's painting depicts James Wakasa being shot to death while walking near the fence in the Topaz camp in Utah; Wakasa was hard of hearing, and did not hear orders to stop shouted from the guard tower.
63. SIAHR1_170217_394.JPG: To combat the boredom of their forced leisure, many inmates learned new skills through classes taught by fellow prisoners. Sadao Oka joined a bird-carving class while at the Poston camp and created this box to display pins and hold tools. Supplies were scarce, so he used the ends of wooden egg crates and surplus wire mesh from window screens to create the pins. He purchased Audubon books and cards to get realistic images to copy. Some pins took two weeks to paint to get the color and intricate feather patterns just right.
64. SIAHR1_170217_400.JPG: This handmade raspberry-shaped boutonniere is attributed to Frank and Dorothy Takahashi who were incarcerated at the Poston camp in Arizona. A dry lake bed near the camp provided a rich supply of shells and other natural materials.
65. SIAHR1_170217_406.JPG: Sadao Oka attending a bird-carving class at Poston camp, around 1943
66. SIAHR1_170217_417.JPG: In the camps, new clothes were a luxury. This pink dress was hand-crocheted for Lois Sakahara by her mother in the Heart Mountain camp in Wyoming. This handmade raspberry-shaped boutonniere is attributed to Frank and Dorothy Takahashi who were incarcerated at the Poston camp in Arizona. A dry lake bed near the camp provided a rich supply of shells and other natural materials.
67. SIAHR1_170217_419.JPG: Baseball was one of the most popular sports played in the camps. This softball belonged to George Hirahara, who was incarcerated at the Heart Mountain camp. The numbers indicate his barracks location and the years he was imprisoned. Kelly Matsumura used this baseball glove at the Gila River camp in Arizona from 1942 to 1945.
68. SIAHR1_170217_433.JPG: Relentless winds carried desert sands into every corner of the barracks at the Topaz camp in Utah. Chiura Obata sketched the result in 1942, recalling that the never-ending sweeping and mopping "wears out the women to exhaustion."
69. SIAHR1_170217_438.JPG: Baseball was one of the most popular sports played in the camps. This softball belonged to George Hirahara, who was incarcerated at the Heart Mountain camp. The numbers indicate his barracks location and the years he was imprisoned. Kelly Matsumura used this baseball glove at the Gila River camp in Arizona from 1942 to 1945.
70. SIAHR1_170217_442.JPG: Himeo Tsumori, like thousands of other teens, had to complete his high school education in the Topaz camp in Utah. This diploma and senior yearbook recognize his 1943 graduation from Topaz High School.
71. SIAHR1_170217_447.JPG: The Ozamotos used this wooden address plate, written in English and Japanese, at the Manzanar camp so friends could locate them. The numbers stand for Block 24, Barracks 4, Apartment 3.
72. SIAHR1_170217_458.JPG: Paul Ishimoto hand-carved this wooden pin to woo May Asaki in the Jerome camp in Arkansas. The two were married in the camp in April 1944.
73. SIAHR1_170217_461.JPG: Cycle of Life The natural cycles of courtship, marriage, births, and deaths continued inside the camps. Marlene Shigekawa was born and spent her first year of life in the Poston camp in Arizona. Courtesy of Marlene Shigekawa
74. SIAHR1_170217_466.JPG: Ellen Hashiguchi was born to Noboru and Kusuye (Irene) Hashiguchi at the Topaz camp on September 2, 1943.
75. SIAHR1_170217_471.JPG: The outdoor funeral for 61-year-old Shinsuke Sugimoto, a Japanese resident alien who had spent 39 years in the United States. After the bombing of Pearl Harbor, he was deemed an enemy alien and sent to a Department of Justice camp in Santa Fe. He was later transferred to the Amache camp, where he died in 1945.
76. SIAHR1_170217_475.JPG: Jim Kurisu and Eunice Yokota met on a blind date in Chicago, Illinois, while both were taking work-leave from Jerome. This photo was taken on their wedding day, April 20, 1944, at the camp.
77. SIAHR1_170217_482.JPG: Camp Activists Some Japanese Americans resisted their incarceration. Some refused to register for the draft, and some refused to pledge loyalty to the United States. Others renounced their American citizenship. Many participated in strikes and demonstrations within the camps. Many considered disloyal or troublemakers were sent to a higher-security segregation center inside the Tule Lake camp in California.
78. SIAHR1_170217_492.JPG: wao and Fusako Shimizu tried to renounce their American citizenship and return to Japan. They were branded as disloyal and sent to the Tule Lake Segregation Center. This handmade New Year's card shows the Shimizu's return address from the Crystal City, Texas, camp complete with the block, barrack, and apartment number.
79. SIAHR1_170217_498.JPG: Tule Lake resisters board buses for deportation, around 1944
80. SIAHR1_170217_505.JPG: Draft resisters from the Heart Mountain camp in Wyoming, 1944
81. SIAHR1_170217_509.JPG: Camp Activists Some Japanese Americans resisted their incarceration. Some refused to register for the draft, and some refused to pledge loyalty to the United States. Others renounced their American citizenship. Many participated in strikes and demonstrations within the camps. Many considered disloyal or troublemakers were sent to a higher-security segregation center inside the Tule Lake camp in California.
82. SIAHR1_170217_510.JPG: The War Relocation Authority asked adult camp residents to complete this questionnaire. Those who answered "No" to either Question 27 or Question 28 (known as No-Nos) were considered disloyal to the United States and sent to the higher-security camp at Tule Lake. Due to its provocative loyalty questions, the form built resentment and spurred resistance among camp residents.
83. SIAHR1_170217_514.JPG: The War Relocation Authority asked adult camp residents to complete this questionnaire. Those who answered "No" to either Question 27 or Question 28 (known as No-Nos) were considered disloyal to the United States and sent to the higher-security camp at Tule Lake. Due to its provocative loyalty questions, the form built resentment and spurred resistance among camp residents.
84. SIAHR1_170217_548.JPG: American Soldiers Even as many of their families were incarcerated, more than 30,000 Japanese Americans volunteered for military service. Most were members of the 100th Infantry Battalion from Hawaiʻi and the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, segregated units that fought together in Europe. In some of the most grueling battles of the war, they became among the army's most decorated units. More than six thousand other Japanese Americans served as translators and interpreters for the Military Intelligence Service. Japanese American women also served in the Women's Army Corps.
85. SIAHR1_170217_556.JPG: Japanese American soldier seated next to a poster of President Franklin Roosevelt's 1943 speech supporting the War Dept. decision to allow loyal Japanese Americans to join the military, 1945
86. SIAHR1_170217_569.JPG: Kazuo Masuda was killed in action fighting with the 100th/442nd Regimental Combat Team. He is seen here, around 1944, visiting his family in the Jerome camp in Arkansas.
87. SIAHR1_170217_570.JPG: Color guards and color bearers of the Japanese American 442nd Regimental Combat Team, stand at attention, while citations are read near Bruyeres, France, where many of their comrades fell, 1944.
88. SIAHR1_170217_587.JPG: The Army initially issued members of the 100th/442nd Regimental Combat Team a racially insensitive insignia with a yellow hand wielding a bloody sword. They objected and designed a new insignia featuring a torch of liberty.
89. SIAHR1_170217_589.JPG: At the outset of the war, most Japanese Americans were considered ineligible to serve in the U.S. military. Masaharu Saito received this notice from his local draft board informing him that he was classified 4C -- an "alien" designation, despite his citizenship. By 1943, as the military struggled to fill quotas, Saito and other Japanese Americans were deemed eligible to serve. The Army initially issued members of the 100th/442nd Regimental Combat Team a racially insensitive insignia with a yellow hand wielding a bloody sword. They objected and designed a new insignia featuring a torch of liberty. In 1944, the 100th/442nd Regimental Combat team was attached to the all-white 34th Infantry Division, known as the "red devils" or "red bulls." After only a month of fighting together, members of the 34th recognized the Japanese American soldiers by inviting them to wear their insignia.
90. SIAHR1_170217_597.JPG: "No payment can make up for those lost years. So, what is most important in this bill has less to do with property than with honor. For here we admit a wrong: here we reaffirm our commitment as a nation to equal justice under the law." -- President Ronald Reagan, 1988 President Ronald Reagan signed the Civil Liberties Act of 1988, providing apology and $20,000 to the living Japanese Americans who were incarcerated during World War II.
91. SIAHR1_170217_607.JPG: H.R. 442 -- the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 -- was so designated to honor the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, the highly decorated Japanese American unit that fought during World War II.
92. SIAHR1_170217_622.JPG: Rejoining Society Beginning in 1942, attorneys contended that Mitsuye Endo, an American citizen in the Tule Lake camp in California, was being held without due process of law. A lower court ruled against her, but in 1944 the U.S. Supreme Court issued a unanimous decision that loyal American citizens could not be held without criminal charges. After the decision, authorities started to empty the camps. But housing shortages, scarce jobs, and lingering discrimination made resettlement difficult. As they left the camps, families took many of the things made or used in camp. The Museum has acquired and is preserving many of these objects, and continues to build these collections. Carol Matsubara, who was sent to both the Jerome and Gila River camps, was able to leave the camps after getting a job as a lima bean inspector at the Seabrook Farms processing plant in Bridgeton, N.J. in 1944.
93. SIAHR1_170217_626.JPG: All inmates were given a $25 travel grant and a train or bus ticket to leave the camps. This gentleman is leaving the Gila River camp in Arizona in 1945.
94. SIAHR1_170217_629.JPG: A newborn identification bracelet from the Poston camp for Marlene Shigekawa, who was born October 23, 1944. Akio Nakagawa wore this identification badge while working at Seabrook Farms in New Jersey. The farm, one of the country's largest producers of canned, frozen, and dehydrated vegetables, hired many Japanese camp inmates during and after the war. Toshi Ito, who was held at the Heart Mountain camp in Wyoming, kept this hand-carved wooden pin depicting traditional Japanese sandals. She wore those geta to walk through the mud at the Santa Anita racetrack temporary detention center. June Shimizu was a 17-year-old high school student when she was first held in the Topaz camp. Later she was sent to the Tule Lake camp in California, where she participated in art classes and worked as a secretary for a camp music studio.
95. SIAHR1_170217_640.JPG: Toshi Ito, who was held at the Heart Mountain camp in Wyoming, kept this hand-carved wooden pin depicting traditional Japanese sandals. She wore those geta to walk through the mud at the Santa Anita racetrack temporary detention center..
96. SIAHR1_170217_642.JPG: A newborn identification bracelet from the Poston camp for Marlene Shigekawa, who was born October 23, 1944.
97. SIAHR1_170217_646.JPG: June Shimizu was a 17-year-old high school student when she was first held in the Topaz camp. Later she was sent to the Tule Lake camp in California, where she participated in art classes and worked as a secretary for a camp music studio.
98. SIAHR1_170217_648.JPG: Akio Nakagawa wore this identification badge while working at Seabrook Farms in New Jersey. The farm, one of the country's largest producers of canned, frozen, and dehydrated vegetables, hired many Japanese camp inmates during and after the war.
99. SIAHR1_170217_655.JPG: Originally, military officials were fearful that Japanese American soldiers might be mistaken for the enemy, so they were sent to the European theater. More than 6,000 Japanese Americans served as translators in the Military Intelligence Service and were sent all over the world.
100. SIAHR1_170217_657.JPG: Junwo "Jimmy" Yamashita wore this coat while serving as a member of the 442nd Regimental Combat Team.
101. SIAHR1_170217_661.JPG: While held at the Poston camp in Arizona, Yasu Takei made this one-thousand-stitch sash to bestow good luck and protection to her son Jim Kuichi Takei, who was fighting with the 442nd in Europe.
102. SIAHR1_170217_669.JPG: Alice Tetsuko Kono, originally from Hawai'i, joined the Women's Army Corps and served as a linguist in the Military Intelligence Service.
103. SIAHR1_170217_678.JPG: In 1943, after being held at the Jerome camp in Arizona, Joe Nishimoto volunteered to serve with the 442nd Regimental Combat Team. Killed in action in 1944, he was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross. The award was upgraded to a Medal of Honor in 2000, after a review to identify service members who had been under-recognized because of prejudice.
104. SIAHR1_170217_679.JPG: Grant Ichikawa wore these dog tags. He volunteered for the Military Intelligence Service while his family was incarcerated at the Gila River camp in Arizona.
105. SIAHR1_170217_682.JPG: Alice Tetsuko Kono, around 1943
106. SIAHR1_170217_696.JPG: Taking Action Through grassroots organizing, court action, legislation, and lobbying, the Japanese American community led the nation to confront the injustice done to them during World War II. The turbulent activism of the 1960s and '70s encouraged the Japanese American community to seek redress. They persuaded President Gerald Ford to rescind Executive Order 9066 in 1976. By 1980 they successfully lobbied President Jimmy Carter to establish the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians. The final report, titled Personal Justice Denied, acknowledged there was no military necessity for incarcerating 75,000 American citizens or 45,000 Japanese nationals. The commission recommended a national apology, compensation payments, and the creation of a foundation to teach Americans about the dangers of racial intolerance.
107. SIAHR1_170217_706.JPG: Taking Action Through grassroots organizing, court action, legislation, and lobbying, the Japanese American community led the nation to confront the injustice done to them during World War II. The turbulent activism of the 1960s and '70s encouraged the Japanese American community to seek redress. They persuaded President Gerald Ford to rescind Executive Order 9066 in 1976. By 1980 they successfully lobbied President Jimmy Carter to establish the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians. The final report, titled Personal Justice Denied, acknowledged there was no military necessity for incarcerating 75,000 American citizens or 45,000 Japanese nationals. The commission recommended a national apology, compensation payments, and the creation of a foundation to teach Americans about the dangers of racial intolerance.
108. SIAHR1_170217_710.JPG: Contact sheets from the Los Angeles hearings, 1981
109. SIAHR1_170217_714.JPG: In 1943, General John DeWitt, who had recommended that Japanese and Japanese Americans be taken into custody, prepared a report explaining the government's action. The report indicated that his motivations were based more in racism than in military necessity; higher-ups quickly revised it and burned what they thought were all the copies. But in 1978 Aiko Herzig-Yoshinaga, who had spent four years in American incarceration camps, identified a marked-up copy of the original report in the National Archives. Armed with this and other documents, she and fellow activists successfully petitioned the government to hold hearings.
110. SIAHR1_170217_716.JPG: More than 750 witnesses testified at eleven hearings across the country. These sketches document hearings held in 1981 in Washington, D.C. Courtesy of Michiko Kuwahara
111. SIAHR1_170217_725.JPG: "The American Promise," a proclamation by which President Gerald Ford rescinded Executive Order 9066, February 19, 1976
112. SIAHR1_170217_735.JPG: Supreme Court Cases Revisited Lawyers discovered that the U.S. government had suppressed evidence in cases brought during World War II, challenging the treatment of Japanese Americans. In January 1983 lawyers petitioned to reopen cases brought by Minoru Yasui, Gordon Hirabayashi, and Fred T. Korematsu through an obscure procedure used to correct injury caused by a court mistake. As a result, lower courts set aside all three convictions. Three plaintiffs in key Supreme Court cases, Gordon Kiyoshi Hirabayashi, Minoru Yasui, and Fred T. Korematsu, around 1984.
113. SIAHR1_170217_745.JPG: Redress Payments The first redress checks for $20,000 and formal letters of apology from President George H.W. Bush were sent in October 1990. The effort to verify claims and locate survivors took ten years, so some received their apology letter from President Bill Clinton. Ultimately, the government provided more than $1.6 billion in redress payments to 82,219 former camp inmates, an amount that did not compensate for their total losses. Manoru Eto, age 107, was among the first to receive the redress payment. Courtesy of Department of Justice, Office of Redress Administration
114. SIAHR1_170217_749.JPG: Former inmates received tax-free redress payments
115. SIAHR1_170217_752.JPG: A presidential apology letter accompanied the redress payments
116. SIAHR1_170217_755.JPG: Unfinished Business Not all victims of Executive Order 9066 have received redress. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States asked twelve Latin American countries to arrest their residents of Japanese, German, and Italian ancestry in order to "secure" the western hemisphere. More than 2,200 Latin Americans of Japanese descent were forcibly deported to camps in the United States. These Latin Americans, the majority of whom came from Peru, were not covered under the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 and are still seeking an apology and restitution. Latin Americans of Japanese, German, and Italian ancestry leaving a temporary prison camp in the Panama Canal Zone to join relatives already incarcerated in the United States, 1942
117. SIAHR1_170217_768.JPG: The Legacy of Redress The Japanese American community continues its effort to educate Americans about the mass incarceration of Americans. Every February 19 -- the anniversary of Executive Order 9066 -- the community observes a day of remembrance. The community's work also led to the establishment of a national memorial near the U.S. Capitol.
118. SIAHR1_170217_775.JPG: The Japanese American community is no longer alone in recognizing the injustices done during World War II. For education and for remembrance, the federal government has developed a series of programs and national historic sites where the camps once stood.
119. SIAHR1_170217_781.JPG: Entrance to the Manzanar camp in California, 1943
120. SIAHR1_170217_786.JPG: "In sum, Executive Order 9066 was not justified by military necessity, and the decisions which followed from it . . . were not founded upon military considerations. The broad historical causes which shaped these decisions were race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership." -- Personal Justice Denied, the report by the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, 1982
121. SIAHR1_170217_792.JPG: "Among our strengths as a nation is our willingness to acknowledge imperfection as well as to struggle for a more just society." -- Personal Justice Denied, the report by the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, 1982
122. SIAHR1_170217_814.JPG: The Museum gratefully acknowledges the generous donors whose support made possible Righting a Wrong: Japanese Americans and World War II Terasaki Family Foundation Japanese American Citizens League AARP Ronald and Joyce Yoshino Chip and Setsy Sadamoto Larouche JACL Washington DC Chapter JACL Chicago Chapter JACL Northern California Western Nevada Pacific District Council JACL Pacific Northwest District Council JACL Sacramento Chapter JACL Seattle Chapter National Japanese American Memorial Foundation Embassy of Japan in the United States Advanced Fresh Concepts Anonymous Hawaii Air Cargo Tom and Gaylene Hoshiyama JACL Portland Chapter Japanese American Veterans Association Masaru and Marcia Hashimoto Evan J. Wallach Mrs. Frank Hirahara JACL Snake River Chapter JACL Berkeley Chapter JACL Intermountain District Council Patti Hirahara and Terry K. Takeda Koda Farms San-J International, Inc. Bourbon Foods USA Corporation Clinton Foundation Bill Imada JACL Midwest District Council Japanese American Veterans Association Miyako N. Kadogawa David and Hisayo Perley Fred T. Korematsu Institute Himeo Tsumori Kay Sekimachi Guillermina LaFever Harriet Ukai Keiki Fujita Tony and Maureen Ward Ellen R. Bepp Dale Kawata Vicky Mihara Avery Kitty Okamura Tracy Hui Aiko Lanier Cuneo Priscilla Minn Kimi Kodani Hill Shirley S. Yuki Fusaye F. Kagimoto Shirley Muramoto-Wong Nicole Sumida Raymond Ogata Gayle Yamada
123. SIAHR1_170217_818.JPG: The Museum gratefully acknowledges the generous donors of objects to the National Collections whose support made this exhibition possible. Seiji Aoyagi Dale Cawley Takayo Fischer Robert Fuchigami Ellen Hashiguchi Aiko Herzig-Yoshinaga Patti Hirahara Grant H. Ichikawa Janet Ishimoto Norman Ishimoto Roger Ishimoto Toshiko Nagamori Ito Fusaye F. Kagimoto Paul Kitagaki Jr. Alice T. Kono Ralph Kumano Jan Kurahara Eunice Kurisu Sharon Logan Masao Masuda Lois Mills Ron Mori Mary Ishimoto Morris Mary T. Murakami Michael Murakami Debora Nagata Martha Nakagawa Chiura Obata Family Jane Oka Mrs. Masa Ozamoto Masaharu Saito Marlene Shigekawa Elizabeth Shigekawa Cedrick Shimo Roger Shimomura Hiroshi Shimizu Donna Sugimoto Family of Walter T. Taira Kuichi Takei Family Michael Goro Takeuchi Dr. Himeo Tsumori Barbara M. Watanabe Joe Yamakido Junwo Yamashita George Wakiji Willard Middle School
124. SIAHR2_170217_024.JPG: Pointing her family's name ("Roger Shimomura") out on the acknowledgement page
125. SIAHR2_170217_042.JPG: Highlighting another name ("Keiki Fujita")
126. SIAHR2_170217_095.JPG: The shoes were from his family, Jingo Takeuchi
127. SIAHR2_170217_098.JPG: Identifying his name (Michael Goro Takeuchi) on the acknowledgement wall
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- 2022_DC_SIAH_Sense: DC -- Natl Museum of American History -- Exhibit: Discovery and Revelation: Religion, Science, and Making Sense of Things (87 photos from 2022)
- 2022_DC_SIAH_Remembrance: DC -- Natl Museum of American History -- Exhibit: War and Remembrance (8 photos from 2022)
- 2022_DC_SIAH_Rallying: DC -- Natl Museum of American History -- Exhibit: Rallying Against Racism (8 photos from 2022)
- 2022_DC_SIAH_Music_HerStory: DC -- Natl Museum of American History -- Exhibit: Music HerStory: Women and Music of Social Change (106 photos from 2022)
- 2022_DC_SIAH_Musical: DC -- Natl Museum of American History -- Exhibit: Musical Instruments (3 photos from 2022)
- ...More (List all 130 pages)...
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Same Subject: Click on this link to see coverage of items having the same subject: [(Smithsonian) American History Museum (Everything)] [(Smithsonian) American History Museum (Non-Events)] [Museums (History)]
2017 photos: Equipment this year: I continued to use my Fuji XS-1 cameras but, depending on the event, I also used a Nikon D7000. Trips this year: Civil War Trust conferences in Pensacola, FL, Chattanooga, TN (via sites in Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Tennessee) and Fredericksburg, VA, a family reunion in The Dells, Wisconsin (via sites in Ohio, Indiana, and Wisconsin), New York City, and my 12th consecutive San Diego Comic Con trip (including sites in Arizona). For some reason, several of my photos have been published in physical books this year which is pretty cool. Ones that I know about: "Tarzan, Jungle King of Popular Culture" (David Lemmo), "The Great Crusade: A Guide to World War I American Expeditionary Forces Battlefields and Sites" (Stephen T. Powers and Kevin Dennehy), "The American Spirit" (David McCullough), "Civil War Battlefields: Walking the Trails of History" (David T. Gilbert), "The Year I Was Peter the Great: 1956 — Khrushchev, Stalin's Ghost, and a Young American in Russia" (Marvin Kalb), and "The Judge: 26 Machiavellian Lessons" (Ron Collins and David Skover). Number of photos taken this year: just below 560,000.
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Photo Contact: [Email Bruce Guthrie].

Original term	Current term
Exclusion	Eviction
Evacuation	Forced removal
Internment	Incarceration
Internee	Inmate
Assembly center	Temporary detention center
Relocation center	Incarceration camp*