BGuthrie Photos: DC -- Natl Museum of American History -- Exhibit: Modern Medicine and the Great War

DC -- Natl Museum of American History -- Exhibit: Modern Medicine and the Great War:

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Description of Pictures: Modern Medicine and the Great War
April 6, 2017 – January 2019
World War I provided a testing ground for the application of new medical technologies and procedures, and in some cases accelerated their general acceptance or development. At the same time, wartime medical practice reflected the larger concerns and prejudices of early twentieth century America, as the country coped with ever more complex problems of modern industrial society.

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Copyrights: All pictures were taken by amateur photographer Bruce Guthrie (me!) who retains copyright on them. Free for non-commercial use with attribution. See the [Creative Commons] definition of what this means. "Photos (c) Bruce Guthrie" is fine for attribution. (Commercial use folks including AI scrapers can of course contact me.) Feel free to use in publications and pages with attribution but you don't have permission to sell the photos themselves. A free copy of any printed publication using any photographs is requested. Descriptive text, if any, is from a mixture of sources, quite frequently from signs at the location or from official web sites; copyrights, if any, are retained by their original owners.

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Specific picture descriptions: Photos above with "i" icons next to the bracketed sequence numbers (e.g. "[1] ") are described as follows:
1. SIAHMM_170404_010.JPG: Modern Medicine & the Great War
2. SIAHMM_170404_012.JPG: Measuring Men After the United States entered the war and instituted the draft, the military needed to evaluate, train, and maintain over four million men. Medical staff used scientific techniques to test and analyze the fitness of America's draft-age population. The resulting data enabled the first large-scale study of the health of the American people and provided evidence for theories regarding racial, ethnic, and regional difference. In the process, Americans encountered new ideas about health standards, and about disease prevalence and prevention.
3. SIAHMM_170404_014.JPG: Recruiting scale, around 1900 Initially the military rejected men weighing less than 118 pounds. Chronic debilitating diseases such as tuberculosis and hookworm, as well as the smaller stature of immigrant populations, contributed to regional differences in weight.
4. SIAHMM_170404_020.JPG: Maps showing the incidence of underweight and defective vision by state compiled from medical data on the first million recruits, 1919
5. SIAHMM_170404_023.JPG: Physical Fitness The military employed modern punch-card technology, first used by the government for the 1890 census, to tabulate and analyze data on the physical characteristics and medical "defects" found in the military-age population. The results suggested that one-fourth to one-third of the American male population was physically or mentally unfit for military service. The military analyzed health by race, ethnicity, region, and occupational group.
6. SIAHMM_170404_025.JPG: Vision test, around 1918 Defective vision was prevalent in the large urban centers of the northeast. Eyestrain, from office work, was thought to contribute to this regional difference.
7. SIAHMM_170404_027.JPG: In order to be a good fighting man you must be, 1917–1918 Poster exhibitions at training camps provided recruits with information about VD. This is the first panel in a series that included medical facts and warnings about immoral behavior.
8. SIAHMM_170404_031.JPG: Venereal disease at Camp Lewis, 1918 Camp Lewis, near Tacoma, Washington, was the first of sixteen training camps built around the nation for the U.S. Army draftees. The camp could house fifty thousand men and covered about nine square miles.
9. SIAHMM_170404_034.JPG: Group examination Alpha and Beta tests, 1918 The U.S. Army developed two written aptitude tests: the Alpha, for test-takers who could read in English, and the Beta, for test-takers who could not read or did not speak English. American schools adopted similar tests after the war.
10. SIAHMM_170404_036.JPG: Card-punch machine, patented 1901 The U.S. Army hired women to operate the card-punch machines in the Medical Records Section. A good punch operator could complete about 1,500 cards per day.
11. SIAHMM_170404_039.JPG: Stenquist construction test, around 1918 This test, developed by educator John L. Stenquist, required individuals to assemble simple household objects. Although the U.S. Army abandoned its use after initial trials, schools and businesses that valued mechanical skills continued to use the test.
12. SIAHMM_170404_042.JPG: Punch card Each punch card included encoded medical information about one recruit. Machines sorted and counted the cards to produce the statistics for reports.
13. SIAHMM_170404_045.JPG: Pictorial completion test, 1917 The U.S. Army used a variety of non-written tests to help assess the mental abilities of a diverse population. This test required individuals to select appropriate objects to complete each scene.
14. SIAHMM_170404_051.JPG: Measuring Intelligence At the urging of American psychologists, the U.S. Army instituted intelligence testing, intended in part to help match recruits to roles best suited to their abilities. Although the military discontinued the program after the war, the practice created a demand for similar tests in education and business and launched new ideas about personnel management. While proponents saw testing as a rational, merit-based method of evaluation, critics argued that the tests were culturally biased and favored educated test-takers.
15. SIAHMM_170404_056.JPG: Individual examination of a recruit 1917-1918
16. SIAHMM_170404_059.JPG: Minding Morals Controlling venereal diseases (VD) -- such as syphilis and gonorrhea -- was a high priority for the military and the American people. With cooperation from community organizations, the military launched an unprecedented program of sexual education as part of its efforts to combat VD. The program sought to influence behavior through candid discussion of the causes and consequences of disease. Abstinence was considered the moral duty of every soldier to his family and country.
17. SIAHMM_170404_063.JPG: Modern Medicine and the Great War In April 1917 the United States entered a world war that had already claimed millions of lives and left millions more disabled by wounds or disease. Health and fitness were central to building a strong military force, and sick and wounded soldiers required treatment to return them to the fight. The task ahead was enormous, but developments in science-based medicine -- such as identifying microorganisms as the cause of diseases and developing sterile surgical procedures -- gave medical practice increased prestige. Armed with new technologies and scientific methods, medical leaders were confident that health could be measured, disease prevented, and wounded bodies restored. The war would put these ideas to the test on an unprecedented scale and under the most difficult conditions. Medical practices developed during the war changed the country's approach to health care in ways that continue to affect us today.
18. SIAHMM_170404_066.JPG: X-ray tube & shield, around 1918 In 1913 American engineer William D. Coolidge introduced a more reliable and rugged x-ray tube that was adopted by the military for the war. The thick glass shield helped protect staff from x-ray exposure.
19. SIAHMM_170404_068.JPG: Technology and Specialization Adapting medical technologies to war work demanded special expertise and training. Scientists and engineers developed x-ray equipment and techniques suitable for war conditions. Working with the U.S. Army Medical Department, they established standardized training for medical personnel. New x-ray technology enabled surgeons to locate and remove shrapnel from the body.
20. SIAHMM_170404_072.JPG: In 1917 Philadelphia engineer and artist H. L. Sa�en designed this x-ray ambulance for field service. Although his proposal was not used, the U.S. Army developed similar vehicles.
21. SIAHMM_170404_073.JPG: Hirtz compass localizing device, around 1916 Label: French military radiologist Eug�ne Hirtz designed this device to locate and guide the surgical removal of shrapnel based on calculations made from x-ray images.
22. SIAHMM_170404_075.JPG: Hirtz compass localizing device, around 1916 Label: French military radiologist Eug�ne Hirtz designed this device to locate and guide the surgical removal of shrapnel based on calculations made from x-ray images.
23. SIAHMM_170404_078.JPG: ID card for Maurice Cornelius Wentz, 1918 Label: Maurice Cornelius Wentz was one of more than seven hundred men trained in x-ray techniques by the U.S. Army. "Roentgenologist," after x-ray discoverer Wilhelm R�ntgen, was the original term for an x-ray specialist.
24. SIAHMM_170404_080.JPG: Women in the War The need for trained medical personnel created new opportunities for women in the military. Women enlisted as nurses, dieticians, and physical and occupational therapy aides. The military hired women doctors on a contract basis only. Despite their professional training, women were denied military rank and veterans' benefits. Nevertheless, women were eager to serve their country, and many welcomed the chance for travel and adventure. Congress did not grant all female medical veterans of World War I full veteran status until 1977.
25. SIAHMM_170404_089.JPG: Women's Uniforms Military medical personnel wore uniforms specific to their work. Women's uniforms, newly designed for the war, echoed many traditional components of male military uniforms -- caps, capes, jackets, insignia. Women typically had both an on-duty ("indoor") and off-duty ("outdoor") uniform, garnering them respect as military personnel, even without the benefit of defined rank. For many women, uniforms were a source of pride, representing their patriotism and willingness to serve.
26. SIAHMM_170404_091.JPG: Wounded soldiers and Red Cross nurses watching a parade on Fifth Avenue, New York City, 1919.
27. SIAHMM_170404_094.JPG: Navy Nurse Corps indoor uniform, about 1917 Sara Cox wore this uniform as one of twenty nurses admitted to the Navy Nurse Corps in 1908. Known as the Sacred Twenty, they were the first women to join the U.S. Navy. Cox served at the Naval Hospital in Washington, D.C., during the war. Born in Canada, she became an American citizen in 1920 through an act of Congress that expedited naturalization for aliens who served in the U.S. military during World War I. Both U.S. Army and Navy nurses wore the scarlet-lined blue cape, adapted from use by Red Cross nurses. It became a symbol of American nursing at home and abroad.
28. SIAHMM_170404_096.JPG: Medical Roles Keeping soldiers fit for fighting required a vast array of trained medical personnel. Professionals in emerging medical specialties such as psychology and radiology sought a place in the military medical structure. Their war work helped legitimize their fields and ensure their continued influence after the war's end. Despite the growing numbers of women and minority medical professionals in the United States, gender and race restricted opportunities for military medical roles. The U.S. Army Nurse Corps welcomed white women, but delayed accepting African American nurses until near the end of the war. The military accepted African American doctors, but allowed few to serve overseas. Female doctors could serve only as contractors.
29. SIAHMM_170404_099.JPG: Introduced by a British orthopedic surgeon, the Thomas splint immobilized fractures of the femur (upper leg) and greatly reduced fatalities from shock and hemorrhage.
30. SIAHMM_170404_102.JPG: Diagram showing method of applying the Thomas splint in the field, 1919
31. SIAHMM_170404_104.JPG: Controlling Infection In a pre-antibiotic era, efforts to prevent infection were at the forefront of wound management. Explosive shells created deep, lacerated wounds and drove bacteria-rich soil into the body. Medical staff experimented with a variety of antiseptics and techniques and made liberal use of anti-tetanus serum -- one of few treatments available that could target a specific infectious disease.
32. SIAHMM_170404_107.JPG: German medical orderly's belt, around 1917 The belt includes sterile bandages, medicines for pain and digestive relief, antiseptics, needles, and soap.
33. SIAHMM_170404_110.JPG: Antiseptic gauze, tablets, and powder, 1910–1920s During the war, English chemist Henry Dakin developed a mild chlorine antiseptic (Chloramine) as an alternative to harsher antiseptics then in use, such as the mercury compound "corrosive sublimate."
34. SIAHMM_170404_112.JPG: Medical chest for first-aid ambulance, Italian, around 1916 The chest includes sterile bandages, splints, morphine, antiseptics, and diagnostic tags.
35. SIAHMM_170404_116.JPG: American soldier assisting wounded British soldier wearing diagnosis tag, Montmirail, France, May 31, 1918
36. SIAHMM_170404_120.JPG: American Expeditionary Forces combat artist George Matthews Harding drew this image of wounded soldiers returning to advanced aid stations after the Battle of Verdun, France, October 1918.
37. SIAHMM_170404_127.JPG: Medical backpack, Turkish Army, 1914–1918 The Turkish Army used the Red Crescent symbol to signify medical services on the battlefield. The Ottoman Empire introduced the symbol in the 1870s as a Muslim alternate to the Red Cross symbol.
38. SIAHMM_170404_129.JPG: Medical Supply and First Aid All warring nations faced the challenge of providing rapid treatment in the field. Initial care focused on stopping bleeding, preventing infection, treating pain and shock, providing warmth and nourishment, and immobilizing fractures for safe transport to the next level of care. Medical supplies had to be easy to apply and transport. Tracking wounded soldiers was equally important -- the medical record-keeping began with diagnosis tags attached to soldiers at the time of initial treatment.
39. SIAHMM_170404_137.JPG: U.S. Hospital Corps belt, 1917 The medical belt included pockets for sterile dressing packets, iodine swabs, and antiseptic gauze. The corpsmen often carried an extra canteen of water for wounded soldiers.
40. SIAHMM_170404_138.JPG: Sterile wound dressings 1916-1918 Individual soldiers carried a small first-aid packet with two sterile bandages. The American packet was in a protective metal case. Many wounds required larger dressings such as the Front Line Parcel (American Red Cross) and Shell Dressing (British).
41. SIAHMM_170404_141.JPG: Medical Supply and First Aid All warring nations faced the challenge of providing rapid treatment in the field. Initial care focused on stopping bleeding, preventing infection, treating pain and shock, providing warmth and nourishment, and immobilizing fractures for safe transport to the next level of care. Medical supplies had to be easy to apply and transport. Tracking wounded soldiers was equally important -- the medical record-keeping began with diagnosis tags attached to soldiers at the time of initial treatment.
42. SIAHMM_170404_144.JPG: Reconstruction Americans entered the war aware of the massive casualties already suffered by battling nations. Still paying benefits to 650,000 Civil War veterans and widows, the U.S. government was mindful of the cost of caring for disabled veterans. For the first time, the U.S. Army instituted a coordinated physical and occupational therapy program. This new work, called "reconstruction," sought to restore all soldiers to physical, social, educational, and economic health. Women called "reconstruction aides" received special training to carry out this work.
43. SIAHMM_170404_146.JPG: Reconstruction aide applying electrotherapy, 1917–1919
44. SIAHMM_170404_151.JPG: Prosthetics The military's reconstruction work included providing all amputees with artificial limbs. Although the nation had a thriving artificial limb industry, the military launched a program to design more economical, standardized, modern limbs. The initiative gave medical professionals oversight of prosthetic construction and use. In previous military conflicts, veterans received an allowance to purchase limbs directly from prosthetic makers.
45. SIAHMM_170404_154.JPG: Electrotherapy unit, around 1911 Aides applied low-voltage electrotherapy to injured patients in order to promote healing and ease pain. Other physical therapy techniques included massage, exercise, and heat application.
46. SIAHMM_170404_157.JPG: Healing Wounds Medical treatment for wounded soldiers entailed a highly organized, hierarchical system that sought to move men quickly off the battlefield and back through successive levels of care. The primary goal was to treat and return soldiers to active service as soon as possible. Americans studied the medical experiences of European nations already engaged in war and adopted many of their methods. Nations were especially concerned with restoring disabled men to "usefulness" after the war. New rehabilitation therapies helped injured soldiers heal and develop job skills, thus keeping them off government pensions.
47. SIAHMM_170404_160.JPG: Carnes artificial arm, around 1915 The Carnes arm had a complicated mechanism that controlled the movement of wrist and fingers. Although expensive, it was very popular in the United States and Europe at the time of the war.
48. SIAHMM_170404_164.JPG: Footstool made by soldier in occupational therapy, 1917–1919 Occupational therapy included handicrafts such as pottery and beadwork and technical tasks such as chair caning. This work helped men regain use of their hands, learn new skills, and ease pain and boredom.
49. SIAHMM_170404_170.JPG: Reconstruction aide massaging injured soldier, Walter Reed General Hospital, 1917–1919
50. SIAHMM_170404_172.JPG: Map Map showing the distribution of sick and wounded soldiers from Europe to hospitals throughout the nation, 1918–1919
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