BGuthrie Photos: VA -- Richmond -- Virginia Museum of History and Culture (VMHC) -- Exhibit: Story of Virginia

VA -- Richmond -- Virginia Museum of History and Culture (VMHC) -- Exhibit: Story of Virginia:

Bruce Guthrie Photos Home Page: [Click here] to go to Bruce Guthrie Photos home page.

Description of Pictures: The Story of Virginia
Step back in time and explore the Story of Virginia
Experience 16,000 years of history in 2 hours
This newly renovated 10,500 square-foot exhibition interprets 16,000 years of Virginia history and features more than 500 artifacts, maps, letters, and diaries ranging from the earliest stone tools shaped by humans to a satellite built by high school students in 2013. Objects in the exhibition are supplemented by images from the VHS collection, soundscapes, video, and digital and hands-on interactives.

Recognize anyone? If you recognize specific folks (or other stuff) and I haven't labeled them, please identify them for the world. Click the little pencil icon

underneath the file name (just above the picture). Spammers need not apply.

Slide Show: Want to see the pictures as a slide show? [Slideshow]

Copyrights: All pictures were taken by amateur photographer Bruce Guthrie (me!) who retains copyright on them. Free for non-commercial use with attribution. See the [Creative Commons] definition of what this means. "Photos (c) Bruce Guthrie" is fine for attribution. (Commercial use folks including AI scrapers can of course contact me.) Feel free to use in publications and pages with attribution but you don't have permission to sell the photos themselves. A free copy of any printed publication using any photographs is requested. Descriptive text, if any, is from a mixture of sources, quite frequently from signs at the location or from official web sites; copyrights, if any, are retained by their original owners.

Help? The Medium (Email) links are for screen viewing and emailing. You'll want bigger sizes for printing. [Click here for additional help]

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[286] VHSSTO_160812_1052.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[287] VHSSTO_160812_1055.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[288] VHSSTO_160812_1058.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[289] VHSSTO_160812_1061.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[290] VHSSTO_160812_1064.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[291] VHSSTO_160812_1067.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[292] VHSSTO_160812_1070.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[293] VHSSTO_160812_1074.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[294] VHSSTO_160812_1079.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[295] VHSSTO_160812_1084.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[296] VHSSTO_160812_1089.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[297] VHSSTO_160812_1091.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[298] VHSSTO_160812_1093.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[299] VHSSTO_160812_1096.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[300] VHSSTO_160812_1099.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[301] VHSSTO_160812_1103.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[302] VHSSTO_160812_1107.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[303] VHSSTO_160812_1110.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[304] VHSSTO_160812_1114.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[305] VHSSTO_160812_1116.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[306] VHSSTO_160812_1120.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[307] VHSSTO_160812_1123.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[308] VHSSTO_160812_1128.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[309] VHSSTO_160812_1131.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[310] VHSSTO_160812_1134.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[311] VHSSTO_160812_1137.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[312] VHSSTO_160812_1141.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[313] VHSSTO_160812_1147.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[314] VHSSTO_160812_1151.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[315] VHSSTO_160812_1154.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[316] VHSSTO_160812_1158.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[317] VHSSTO_160812_1162.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[318] VHSSTO_160812_1167.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[319] VHSSTO_160812_1171.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[320] VHSSTO_160812_1175.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[321] VHSSTO_160812_1178.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[322] VHSSTO_160812_1182.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[323] VHSSTO_160812_1186.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[324] VHSSTO_160812_1190.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[325] VHSSTO_160812_1194.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[326] VHSSTO_160812_1196.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[327] VHSSTO_160812_1199.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[328] VHSSTO_160812_1205.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[329] VHSSTO_160812_1209.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[330] VHSSTO_160812_1213.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[331] VHSSTO_160812_1222.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[332] VHSSTO_160812_1229.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[333] VHSSTO_160812_1234.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[334] VHSSTO_160812_1238.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[335] VHSSTO_160812_1239.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[336] VHSSTO_160812_1243.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[337] VHSSTO_160812_1246.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[338] VHSSTO_160812_1253.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[339] VHSSTO_160812_1261.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[340] VHSSTO_160812_1263.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[341] VHSSTO_160812_1265.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[342] VHSSTO_160812_1270.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[343] VHSSTO_160812_1273.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[344] VHSSTO_160812_1276.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[345] VHSSTO_160812_1280.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[346] VHSSTO_160812_1283.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[347] VHSSTO_160812_1290.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[348] VHSSTO_160812_1291.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[349] VHSSTO_160812_1295.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[350] VHSSTO_160812_1303.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[351] VHSSTO_160812_1304.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[352] VHSSTO_160812_1309.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[353] VHSSTO_160812_1312.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[354] VHSSTO_160812_1315.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[355] VHSSTO_160812_1318.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[356] VHSSTO_160812_1322.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[357] VHSSTO_160812_1324.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[358] VHSSTO_160812_1327.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[359] VHSSTO_160812_1333.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[360] VHSSTO_160812_1337.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[361] VHSSTO_160812_1343.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[362] VHSSTO_160812_1347.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[363] VHSSTO_160812_1348.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[364] VHSSTO_160812_1352.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[365] VHSSTO_160812_1355.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[366] VHSSTO_160812_1359.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[367] VHSSTO_160812_1362.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[368] VHSSTO_160812_1368.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[369] VHSSTO_160812_1369.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[370] VHSSTO_160812_1373.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[371] VHSSTO_160812_1376.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[372] VHSSTO_160812_1379.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[373] VHSSTO_160812_1383.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[374] VHSSTO_160812_1386.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[375] VHSSTO_160812_1390.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[376] VHSSTO_160812_1400.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[377] VHSSTO_160812_1402.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[378] VHSSTO_160812_1406.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[379] VHSSTO_160812_1409.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[380] VHSSTO_160812_1412.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[381] VHSSTO_160812_1417.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[382] VHSSTO_160812_1420.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[383] VHSSTO_160812_1423.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[384] VHSSTO_160812_1426.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[385] VHSSTO_160812_1430.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[386] VHSSTO_160812_1434.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[387] VHSSTO_160812_1438.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[388] VHSSTO_160812_1441.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[389] VHSSTO_160812_1444.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[390] VHSSTO_160812_1447.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[391] VHSSTO_160812_1450.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[392] VHSSTO_160812_1453.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[393] VHSSTO_160812_1459.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[394] VHSSTO_160812_1461.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[395] VHSSTO_160812_1465.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[396] VHSSTO_160812_1470.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[397] VHSSTO_160812_1477.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[398] VHSSTO_160812_1480.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[399] VHSSTO_160812_1487.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[400] VHSSTO_160812_1490.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[401] VHSSTO_160812_1495.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[402] VHSSTO_160812_1501.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[403] VHSSTO_160812_1505.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[404] VHSSTO_160812_1509.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[405] VHSSTO_160812_1512.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[406] VHSSTO_160812_1516.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[407] VHSSTO_160812_1519.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[408] VHSSTO_160812_1523.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[409] VHSSTO_160812_1525.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[410] VHSSTO_160812_1530.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[411] VHSSTO_160812_1534.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[412] VHSSTO_160812_1537.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[413] VHSSTO_160812_1540.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[414] VHSSTO_160812_1548.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[415] VHSSTO_160812_1550.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[416] VHSSTO_160812_1557.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[417] VHSSTO_160812_1560.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[418] VHSSTO_160812_1564.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[419] VHSSTO_160812_1579.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[420] VHSSTO_160812_1582.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[421] VHSSTO_160812_1585.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[422] VHSSTO_160812_1588.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[423] VHSSTO_160812_1591.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[424] VHSSTO_160812_1595.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[425] VHSSTO_160812_1599.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[426] VHSSTO_160812_1603.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[427] VHSSTO_160812_1613.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[428] VHSSTO_160812_1616.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[429] VHSSTO_160812_1621.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[430] VHSSTO_160812_1626.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[431] VHSSTO_160812_1628.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[432] VHSSTO_160812_1631.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[433] VHSSTO_160812_1634.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[434] VHSSTO_160812_1637.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[435] VHSSTO_160812_1639.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[436] VHSSTO_160812_1644.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[437] VHSSTO_160812_1648.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[438] VHSSTO_160812_1653.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[439] VHSSTO_160812_1664.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[440] VHSSTO_160812_1667.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[441] VHSSTO_160812_1672.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[442] VHSSTO_160812_1679.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[443] VHSSTO_160812_1686.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[444] VHSSTO_160812_1689.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[445] VHSSTO_160812_1694.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[446] VHSSTO_160812_1698.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[447] VHSSTO_160812_1703.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[448] VHSSTO_160812_1706.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[449] VHSSTO_160812_1712.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[450] VHSSTO_160812_1714.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[451] VHSSTO_160812_1717.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[452] VHSSTO_160812_1721.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[453] VHSSTO_160812_1725.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[454] VHSSTO_160812_1730.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[455] VHSSTO_160812_1737.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[456] VHSSTO_160812_1741.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[457] VHSSTO_160812_1743.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[458] VHSSTO_160812_1746.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[459] VHSSTO_160812_1752.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[460] VHSSTO_160812_1760.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[461] VHSSTO_160812_1763.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[462] VHSSTO_160812_1767.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[463] VHSSTO_160812_1771.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[464] VHSSTO_160812_1774.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[465] VHSSTO_160812_1781.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[466] VHSSTO_160812_1785.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[467] VHSSTO_160812_1791.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[468] VHSSTO_160812_1793.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[469] VHSSTO_160812_1798.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[470] VHSSTO_160812_1801.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[471] VHSSTO_160812_1811.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[472] VHSSTO_160812_1813.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[473] VHSSTO_160812_1818.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[474] VHSSTO_160812_1823.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[475] VHSSTO_160812_1827.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[476] VHSSTO_160812_1831.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[477] VHSSTO_160812_1836.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[478] VHSSTO_160812_1841.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[479] VHSSTO_160812_1845.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[480] VHSSTO_160812_1849.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[481] VHSSTO_160812_1853.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[482] VHSSTO_160812_1856.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[483] VHSSTO_160812_1860.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[484] VHSSTO_160812_1870.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[485] VHSSTO_160812_1872.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[486] VHSSTO_160812_1880.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[487] VHSSTO_160812_1882.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[488] VHSSTO_160812_1891.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[489] VHSSTO_160812_1892.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[490] VHSSTO_160812_1895.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[491] VHSSTO_160812_1900.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[492] VHSSTO_160812_1903.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[493] VHSSTO_160812_1906.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[494] VHSSTO_160812_1909.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[495] VHSSTO_160812_1912.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[496] VHSSTO_160812_1917.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[497] VHSSTO_160812_1925.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[498] VHSSTO_160812_1930.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[499] VHSSTO_160812_1937.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[500] VHSSTO_160812_1942.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[501] VHSSTO_160812_1949.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[502] VHSSTO_160812_1954.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[503] VHSSTO_160812_1962.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[504] VHSSTO_160812_1967.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[505] VHSSTO_160812_1973.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[506] VHSSTO_160812_1977.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[507] VHSSTO_160812_1981.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[508] VHSSTO_160812_1984.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[509] VHSSTO_160812_1987.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[510] VHSSTO_160812_1991.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[511] VHSSTO_160812_1995.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[512] VHSSTO_160812_1998.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[513] VHSSTO_160812_2003.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[514] VHSSTO_160812_2006.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[515] VHSSTO_160812_2010.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[516] VHSSTO_160812_2013.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[517] VHSSTO_160812_2018.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[518] VHSSTO_160812_2021.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[519] VHSSTO_160812_2025.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[520] VHSSTO_160812_2029.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[521] VHSSTO_160812_2032.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[522] VHSSTO_160812_2035.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[523] VHSSTO_160812_2038.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[524] VHSSTO_160812_2040.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[525] VHSSTO_160812_2043.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[526] VHSSTO_160812_2047.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[527] VHSSTO_160812_2055.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[528] VHSSTO_160812_2060.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[529] VHSSTO_160812_2062.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[530] VHSSTO_160812_2067.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[531] VHSSTO_160812_2075.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[532] VHSSTO_160812_2079.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[533] VHSSTO_160812_2088.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[534] VHSSTO_160812_2092.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[535] VHSSTO_160812_2095.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[536] VHSSTO_160812_2099.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[537] VHSSTO_160812_2109.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[538] VHSSTO_160812_2113.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[539] VHSSTO_160812_2116.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[540] VHSSTO_160812_2119.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[541] VHSSTO_160812_2123.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[542] VHSSTO_160812_2127.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[543] VHSSTO_160812_2130.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[544] VHSSTO_160812_2133.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[545] VHSSTO_160812_2138.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[546] VHSSTO_160812_2140.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[547] VHSSTO_160812_2144.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[548] VHSSTO_160812_2149.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[549] VHSSTO_160812_2158.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[550] VHSSTO_160812_2163.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[551] VHSSTO_160812_2166.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[552] VHSSTO_160812_2171.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[553] VHSSTO_160812_2176.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[554] VHSSTO_160812_2181.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[555] VHSSTO_160812_2184.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[556] VHSSTO_160812_2188.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[557] VHSSTO_160812_2192.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[558] VHSSTO_160812_2195.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[559] VHSSTO_160812_2199.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[560] VHSSTO_160812_2201.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[561] VHSSTO_160812_2205.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[562] VHSSTO_160812_2208.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[563] VHSSTO_160812_2212.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[564] VHSSTO_160812_2216.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[565] VHSSTO_160812_2219.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[566] VHSSTO_160812_2222.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[567] VHSSTO_160812_2226.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[568] VHSSTO_160812_2231.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[569] VHSSTO_160812_2234.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[570] VHSSTO_160812_2241.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[571] VHSSTO_160812_2243.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[572] VHSSTO_160812_2245.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[573] VHSSTO_160812_2255.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[574] VHSSTO_160812_2257.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[575] VHSSTO_160812_2259.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[576] VHSSTO_160812_2262.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[577] VHSSTO_160812_2265.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[578] VHSSTO_160812_2268.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[579] VHSSTO_160812_2272.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[580] VHSSTO_160812_2276.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[581] VHSSTO_160812_2283.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[582] VHSSTO_160812_2286.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[583] VHSSTO_160812_2292.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[584] VHSSTO_160812_2294.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[585] VHSSTO_160812_2296.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[586] VHSSTO_160812_2299.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[587] VHSSTO_160812_2302.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[588] VHSSTO_160812_2305.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[589] VHSSTO_160812_2314.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[590] VHSSTO_160812_2321.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[591] VHSSTO_160812_2323.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[592] VHSSTO_160812_2325.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[593] VHSSTO_160812_2329.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[594] VHSSTO_160812_2331.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[595] VHSSTO_160812_2337.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
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Specific picture descriptions: Photos above with "i" icons next to the bracketed sequence numbers (e.g. "[1] ") are described as follows:
1. VHSSTO_160812_0010.JPG: A Land of Opportunity: Creating Virginia
2. VHSSTO_160812_0014.JPG: 16,000 BCE to 1622 CE At the time of the great northern glaciers, Native Americans followed the game they hunted to Virginia. Ten thousand years later, as the cold of the Ice Age gave way to a warmer, drier climate, they relied also on foraging and farming. After about 900 CE they settled into villages that united into chiefdoms. In 1607, in pursuit of opportunity in a new world, English settlers intruded into an eastern Virginia chiefdom of thirty-two tribes (15,000 to 20,000 people). Its leader then was Wahunsenacawh, whom the new settlers called by his title, Powhatan.
3. VHSSTO_160812_0022.JPG: Where British America Began: In December 1606, the Virginia Company of London sent an expedition to establish a settlement in the new world. These first 143 men and boys arrived by ship after traversing a vast ocean. Although their venture nearly failed, these English settlers paved the way for others, many of whom would arrive by ship. Their first view of America would be its shoreline.
4. VHSSTO_160812_0026.JPG: Exploration of the New World
5. VHSSTO_160812_0032.JPG: Exploration of the New World Initially, European nations were searching for a water route to the Far East, not a New World. Many factors encouraged European exploration. Portugal, Spain, France, and England were newly emerged as nation-states with the means to finance long overseas voyages now possible by innovations in navigation. They searched for a water route to the East because war with the Ottoman Empire interrupted the profitable overland trade routes with the Orient. Support for exploration also came from the Catholic Church, which looked to convert pagans.
6. VHSSTO_160812_0036.JPG: International Interest in the New World Portugal led the European nations into exploration by sailing southward along the African coast, seeking a route to the East. Spain's ambitions were launched by Christopher Columbus, who discovered islands in the Caribbean Sea. While Spain was building its New World empire, France and the Netherlands also were exploring. The English, although the last to start explorations, would eventually take the lead in colonization.
7. VHSSTO_160812_0040.JPG: Spanish Exploration and Settlement Christopher Columbus's voyages launched a wave of Spanish followers. Ponce de Leon explored Florida. Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama. Magellan sailed around the world. Coronado discovered the Grand Canyon. De Soto explored Florida to the Mississippi. When Cortez and Pizarro stole the riches of the Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru, Spain became the wealthiest and most powerful nation.
8. VHSSTO_160812_0043.JPG: Father Segura: b 1529 / d 4 February 1571 Juan Baptista de Segura was a Jesuit priest in La Florida who in 1570 established a mission along the York River. He was killed the next year by Don Luis De Velasco (formerly Paquiquineo), a Virginia Indian who had converted to Christianity. When Spanish troops avenged the killing, they possibly contributed to the formation by the Powhatans of an empire able to confront the next European invaders.
9. VHSSTO_160812_0046.JPG: Quarter of a Spanish silver real, about 1600
10. VHSSTO_160812_0048.JPG: Quarter of a Spanish silver real, about 1600 This coin was excavated at Nominy plantation, Westmoreland County Spain's gold and silver coins were essential for American commerce from 1607 until the 1850s, when the US government finally was able to provide a sufficient quantity of its own currency. The gold and silver stolen from Mexico and South America made Spain the wealthiest nation in Europe, and it provided the material for currency. This coin has been quartered, from which we get the coinage term "quarter."
11. VHSSTO_160812_0051.JPG: Why Did the English Come? The English did not come to Virginia for political or religious freedom. They wanted an empire in America, where Spain already was deriving great wealth. They sought gold and gems, a passage to the riches of China and the Indies, and to prey on treasure-filled Spanish galleons. They hoped to convert the native peoples to Protestantism and challenge the ambitions of Catholic Spain and France.
12. VHSSTO_160812_0056.JPG: How Virginia Got Its Name Elizabeth I (1533–1603), queen of England, never married. Englishmen named their dream of an empire in the New World after her, their virgin queen. Elizabeth's elder sister, Mary I, had lost England's last possession on the continent, Calais, in France. During Elizabeth's reign Englishmen turned their eyes to the New World. The first English attempts to colonize North America were made under her patronage. Until Queen Elizabeth I's reign, the English showed little interest in exploration, being occupied instead with their European trade and establishing control over the British Isles.
13. VHSSTO_160812_0059.JPG: The Lost Colony An exploratory trip to the Outer Banks in 1584 brought back to England two friendly Algonquian-speaking Indians. Encouraged, the English sent a second voyage in 1585 to establish a fortified camp, from which John White and Thomas Hariot explored the mainland and the Chesapeake Bay, making maps and paintings to record the native culture. Colonists were sent the next year. By 1590, they had disappeared.
14. VHSSTO_160812_0062.JPG: The Dream of Virginia European's hoped that the Western Hemisphere would prove a new Eden of peace and plenty. Jamestown was established by the Virginia Company of London, a stock company established in 1606 by a royal charter issued by James I. The king made promised in that charter that Virginians would remember in 1775: all in Virginia "and every of their children shall have and enjoy all Liberties, Franchises, and Immunities as if they had been abiding and born within this our Realm of England."
15. VHSSTO_160812_0065.JPG: Sir Walter Ralegh b 22 January 1552 / d. 29 October 1618 The first to make a dream of an English empire in America a reality was Ralegh. In 1585 this adventurer and favorite of Queen Elizabeth founded a military base on Roanoke Island, between what today is mainland North Carolina and its Outer Banks. Was with the Spanish Armada in 1588 cut off communications with England, and in 1590 a relief expedition found the colony mysteriously abandoned.
16. VHSSTO_160812_0070.JPG: The Virginia Company of London After the failure of Ralegh expedition, the English crown hesitated to try again. In 1606, the privately funded Virginia Company of London received a charter. All who purchased company stock shared in the success or failure of the effort to establish a profitable English colony in the New World.
17. VHSSTO_160812_0072.JPG: "This country of Virginia ... where yet no Christian Prince hath any possession or dealing, cannot but yield many kinds of excellent commodities, which we in our discovery have not yet seen." -- Thomas Hariot, A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia, 1590
18. VHSSTO_160812_0078.JPG: All America was Virginia The charter granted to the Virginia Company of London in 1606 was vague as to how far Virginia extended westward. To the settlers, Virginia extended as far as one could image. In 1728, William Byrd II wrote, "that part of the northern American continent now under the domination of the king of Great Britain went at first under the general name of Virginia." Throughout the colonial era, Europeans knew little about the westward extent of North America.
19. VHSSTO_160812_0081.JPG: The Struggles of Jamestown The site was defensible, navigable, and uninhabited by Indians, but it was plagued by mosquitoes and brackish water. The settlers arrived too late to plant crops. Two-thirds of them died before relief arrived in 1608. When an expedition sent in 1609 was shipwrecked by bad weather for a year in Bermuda, the settlers nearly starved; only sixty of the earlier 214 survived. Some turned to cannibalism as relations with once-helpful Indians deteriorated.
20. VHSSTO_160812_0090.JPG: John Smith b January 1580 / d 21 June 1631 Before arriving in the New World, Capt. John Smith had fought in the Hungarian wars against the Turks, where he beheaded three Turkish champions. Later captured and sold into slavery in Russia, Smith escaped by killing his master. In Virginia, Smith showed the same brashness and bravery, thereby winning the respect of the Powhatan Indians. He maintained friendly relations with them until he left Jamestown in 1609.
21. VHSSTO_160812_0093.JPG: John Smith & Pocahontas While exploring west of Jamestown, Capt. John Smith was captured by the Powhatan Indians and taken to chief Powhatan. Smith claimed that "as many as could layed hands on him" and that they were "ready with their clubs, to beate out his braines," when "Pocahontas the Kings dearest daughter saved him from death." Many today consider Smith's account false. However, the two thereafter established a friendship.
22. VHSSTO_160812_0096.JPG: The Successes of Jamestown Despite poor planning, near famine, and a great loss of life in its first years, Jamestown survived when other colonization efforts had failed. In December 1606, the ships Susan Constant, Godspeed, and Discovery, carrying 104 passengers, sailed for "Virginia." In May 1607, sixty miles up a river that they named the James after their king, they selected a defensible peninsula with good anchorage. They named it Jamestown. With the help of native Americans, with home they traded for food, it would survive as the first permanent settlement in America.
23. VHSSTO_160812_0099.JPG: Pocahontas, 1994 As painted by Mary Ellen Howe Although Pocahontas was only twelve years old when she met John Smith in 1607, she had grown to the age of twenty-one when, in London, she sat for an artist who created an engraving of her. That engraving can be viewed by opening the draw below. It was the source for this modern painting by Mary Ellen Howe, who introduced color to better recreate Pocahontas's appearance.
24. VHSSTO_160812_0102.JPG: "Virginiae item et Floridae Americae provinciarum, nova description" (Amsterdam: Hondius, 1619), Map F221 1619:1 IN the 1580s, the English made exploratory trips to the Outer Banks (of today's North Carolina), from which they explored the mainland and the Chesapeake Bay. This map was based on a watercolor made then.
25. VHSSTO_160812_0108.JPG: 1852 Thomas Sully's portrait of Pocahontas Thomas Sully, a Philadelphia portraitist, depicts Pocahontas at what romantic Virginians of the nineteenth century construed as her best moment -- after her absorption into English culture and before the fateful trip to England where, in 1617, she became sick and died. Sully's mountainous landscape is as much a fantasy as is his image of her.
26. VHSSTO_160812_0116.JPG: Rescue Myth? Probably Not: * The Powhatans would have burned and skinned him; not clubbed him. * Powhatan priests had found Smith to be acceptable. * The Indians did not welcome and prepare a feast for a captive whose death was imminent. * Smith did not mention the rescue in many of his writings. Maybe: * Smith's reliability as a reporter in Europe, Asia, and America has been validated wherever it can be checked. * Smith reputedly mentioned the rescue in a letter written to Anne of Denmark. * In 1623, Smith testified that Pocahontas rescued him to a commission conducting an investigation of the Virginia Company. * It is possible that both John Smith and Pocahontas believed that he was about to be beaten to death, but the Powhatan Indians were simply testing his courage and did not intend to do him serious harm.
27. VHSSTO_160812_0120.JPG: Strained Coexistence The first settlers were welcomed by the Indians with ceremony. However, following John Smith's return to England in 1609, both George Percy and Gov. Baron De La Warr proved incompetent in negotiating with potentially friendly tribes. Deteriorating relations brought conflict that ended only when John Rolfe married Pocahontas in 1614. As the English appropriated additional land, another crisis loomed.
28. VHSSTO_160812_0123.JPG: Simon van de Passe's engraving of Pocahontas, 1616, 1993.192 This is the only portrait of Pocahontas taken from life and thereby the most credible image of her. In rigid, Jacobean attire, twenty-one-year-old Pocahontas seems uncomfortable, but the costume probably hid tattooing and certainly provided the chaste image wanted by the Virginia Company. That organization sponsored the Virginia settlement and Pocahontas's trip to England, and it probably commissioned this print for publicity.
29. VHSSTO_160812_0130.JPG: 1627 The Generall Historie of Virginia, New England, and the Summer Isles by John Smith
30. VHSSTO_160812_0139.JPG: There is not one story of Virginia, but many. It is the individual tales of those who have lived here over the centuries and a collective narrative about what brought them together as a people.
31. VHSSTO_160812_0142.JPG: Wandering, Foraging, and Farming For more than 16,000 years, Indians in Virginia transitioned from nomadic bands of hunter gatherers to sedentary farmers. Indian societies evolved from small bands to larger tribal identities and later chiefdoms. This change resulted from innovations in technology, increasing population, and a warming climate. Spears gave way to atlatls, allowing hunters to kill at a distance. Later, agriculture created a number of stratified societies, with priests conducting religious ceremonies for many occasions, including the planting and harvesting of crops.
32. VHSSTO_160812_0149.JPG: The First Immigrants Thousands of years ago, as glaciers retreated and vegetation returned, herds of ancient animals migrated from Asia into North America. Following their primary sources of food, human families traversed the tundra or skirted the coastline into a new world. Wearing the skins of the animals they hunted and armed with stone and bone tools, they were the first migrants to Virginia.
33. VHSSTO_160812_0155.JPG: John White b about 1540 / d about 1593 English artist John White was a member of the failed permanent settlement on Roanoke Island. As part of Sir Walter Raleigh's plan to colonize "Virginia," White produced numerous watercolors documenting the plants, animals, and inhabitants of the mid-Atlantic coast. Designed to illustrate the New World for European audiences, his work brought Algonquian society to life for English viewers.
34. VHSSTO_160812_0160.JPG: Clovis points, about 9500 BCE Clovis points are named after the New Mexico site where they were first discovered. At Virginia sites -- including Cactus Hill, Thunderbird, and Williamson -- Paleo-Indians quarried chert, chalcedony, and jasper to make Clovis points. These stones were used as the tips of projectiles and as knife blades. Flaked grooves called "flutes" extend from the concave base and up, on both sides, allowing the stone point to be attached or "hafted" to a wooden shaft.
35. VHSSTO_160812_0168.JPG: The Archaeology of Virginia Indian Sites This map shows a sample of known prehistoric resources across Virginia. Many sites remain unknown. Paleoindian sites are few in number as this was the first entrance of people into the region. Many more Archaic sites are known due to population increase and seasonal mobility. Woodland sites are of moderate density with higher populated sites found along rivers for agriculture.
36. VHSSTO_160812_0170.JPG: Stewards of the Past: The Virginia Department of Historic Resources The mission of the Virginia Department of Historic Resources is to foster, encourage, and support the stewardship of Virginia's significant historic architectural, archaeological, and cultural resources. As the State Historic Preservation Office in Virginia, the Department of Historic Resources (DHR) maintains the Virginia Landmarks Register, manages Virginia's historic tax credit program, and administers the creation of official highway historical markers. In addition, the DHR is the state's repository for archaeological collections and preserves artifacts recovered from more than 850 archaeological sites representing Virginia's past.
37. VHSSTO_160812_0172.JPG: From Where and How? Discoveries at Cactus Hill (Sussex County) in the 1990s undermined a theory that humans first arrived in the Americas 13,000 years ago, traveling from Siberia via a temporary land bridge across the Bering Strait. Stratified sequences date Cactus Hill 5,000 years earlier, before falling sea levels exposed the bridge. Scholars now propose that people may have skirted along pack ice on either the Pacific or Atlantic coast, or both.
38. VHSSTO_160812_0179.JPG: The first people in Virginia -- known today as "Paleo" or "ancient" Indians -- were nomads who arrived more than 16,000 years ago during the ice age. They survived by hunting animals and gathering plants. They lived among conifers and grasslands, the ranges of which once extended onto Virginia's exposed continental shelf.
39. VHSSTO_160812_0181.JPG: The arrowhead made of stone is called a "point," but not all points are arrowheads. The bow and arrow had not yet been invented in the Paleo-Indian and Archaic periods. Stone points in those eras were attached to spears and atlatl shafts, and some were not projectile points but were attached to handles to be used as knives.
40. VHSSTO_160812_0183.JPG: Steatite Bowl, about 2000 BCE Steatite, or soapstone, could be easily carved to make cooking bowls. Soapstone was a highly prized material because it absorbed, stored, and radiated heat. It was used to make cooking vessels. Its use suggests that people were more settled, because the bowls were heavy and difficult to move. It was not too heavy, however, to trade. Fragments have been discovered hundreds of miles from where the soapstone was quarried -- evidence of contact between peoples in the mountains and the coast.
41. VHSSTO_160812_0185.JPG: Steatite Bowl, about 2000 BCE Steatite, or soapstone, could be easily carved to make cooking bowls. Its use suggests that people were more settled, because the bowls were heavy and difficult to move. (Courtesy of the Department of Historic Resources)
42. VHSSTO_160812_0187.JPG: about 4000 BCE Grinding stone Grinding stones made nuts and seeds more edible, but it introduced bits of stone into the food. The chewing of gritty meal wore down peoples' teeth.
43. VHSSTO_160812_0189.JPG: New Tools for New Food In their changed environment, Indians of the Archaic Age discovered new foods sources from trees and plants. Though difficult to digest, nuts, roots, and seeds became a larger part of their diet. Women used grinding stones, or pestles, and stone mortars to crush them into flour that could be baked or boiled.
44. VHSSTO_160812_0192.JPG: As the climate warmed 10,000 years ago, humans increasingly moved about, often between seasonal camps, to collect food and materials. These "Archaic Age" peoples discovered new resources and gradually became more sedentary.
45. VHSSTO_160812_0194.JPG: More Food for More People Even with the end of the Ice Age, the environment continued to change. Temperatures climbed, sea levels rose, precipitation increased, and by 8000 BCE hardwood forests provided a greater variety of nuts, berries, and fruits for foraging. Large mammals were by now extinct, but Early Archaic people gathered together in resource-rich areas where they could fish and hunt
46. VHSSTO_160812_0197.JPG: about 1000 Charred corncob Lacking agriculture, Archaic Age peoples migrated seasonally to harvest wild foods. When corn made its way to Virginia from Mexico, around 1000, cultures settled more permanently and began farming.
47. VHSSTO_160812_0203.JPG: about 2000 BCE Savannah River points Savannah River Points are large with a triangular blade and straight edges. These commonly found points were used as knives as well as projectiles.
48. VHSSTO_160812_0205.JPG: Killing Food from Afar About 6000 BCE, hunters began using the atlatl, which allowed them to kill from a greater distance. Though spears were still used for certain tasks, they were largely replaced by the new technology. Unlike atlatls from other parts of the world, those found in North America often include stone weights tied to their middles.
49. VHSSTO_160812_0208.JPG: The atlatl added power and distance to a hunter's arm, allowing him to hurl long flexible darts farther because of spring-like energy.
50. VHSSTO_160812_0211.JPG: Beginning around 1200 BCE, people in Virginia became more sedentary as they developed an agricultural tradition and an understanding of how to make and utilize pottery. Growing corn required people to settle near the fields they cultivated. Clay pots, which proved superior for cooking, could also be used as dry containers to store food for a growing population.
51. VHSSTO_160812_0213.JPG: The Seat of Powhatan Werowocomoco was the principal residence and headquarters of Powhatan, the paramount chief of the Powhatan confederacy. When the English arrived in 1607, the Powhatan were the dominant political force in the Chesapeake region. Research suggests that Weowocomoco was established as early as 1200 and that the site had religious significance for the Powhatan people.
52. VHSSTO_160812_0216.JPG: Powhatan b unknown / d 1618 Chief Powhatan, or Wahunsenecawh, was the paramount chief of Tsenacomacah, the name the Powhatan people gave to their own land. Having united more than twenty-eight tribes into the Powhatan confederacy, he was the main political and military leader to interact with English settlers at Jamestown. After his death in 1618, he was succeeded by his brother, Opechancanough. Excavating Powhatan's Headquarters Much of what is known about Werowocomoco is because of research conducted by the Department of Historic Resources, in partnership with the College of William and Mary and Virginia Indians. Among the items discovered by archaeologists along a forty-five-acre site near the York River were numerous ceramic sherds, copper and glass trade goods, and the footprint of a seventy-two-foot longhouse.
53. VHSSTO_160812_0220.JPG: A Technological Leap For thousands of years, hunting was performed with spears and atlatls, but by the middle of the Woodland Period the bow and arrow replaced them. The bow allowed hunters to drastically reduce animal populations, creating competition between groups of hunters vying for the same resources. As the bow and arrow became used for warfare, settlements became fortified.
54. VHSSTO_160812_0223.JPG: Bows and Arrows The construction of bows and arrows was a time consuming process, making them highly valued items. The wood for bows was often cut from flexible saplings, which would be allowed to dry for about a year to properly season them. Shaft construction for an arrow was also a long and laborious tasks. The velocity and accuracy of an arrow was much greater than that of a dart thrown by hand, making it easier to kill large quantities of game.
55. VHSSTO_160812_0227.JPG: Late Woodland (900-1700) Madison triangular points These small triangular points, made with a variety of stone types, were used as arrowheads in the hunting of small animals such as deer and other woodland game. Their lack of notching was based on a new hafting technique that used glue.
56. VHSSTO_160812_0230.JPG: Late Woodland (1500-1600) Fish bone hook Last Woodland (1600-1675) Fish bone blank Virginia Indians developed a variety of techniques for catching fish. Then, as today, the use of a baited hook was a popular practice. Hooks were made form the tube-shaped bones of birds or mammals; the bone could be split to make two hooks. Considerable dexterity was required to catch a fish unsing only a simple hook attached to a string.
57. VHSSTO_160812_0236.JPG: Solving History's Mysteries: The Challenges of Archaeology Archaeology uses material culture to better understand people from the past. Beneath Virginia's soil are countless objects left by previous inhabitants, but they are rarely found with detailed explanations from their owners. Archaeologists piece together these fragments in order to paint a picture of Virginia's past people and cultures. Occasionally, archaeologists are unable to identify definitively an artifact's function and can only guess at the use of the item using contextual information.
58. VHSSTO_160812_0239.JPG: about 1400 Morgan-Hranicky axe head Discovered in Smythe County in 1966, this axe head is named after its discover. Its actual use is unknown, but its unsharpened edge and large size suggest it was ceremonial.
59. VHSSTO_160812_0242.JPG: 900-1600 Elk scapula rasp This notched elk scapula rasp was likely a musical instrument, but similar shoulder bones from large animals could also be used as digging tools.
60. VHSSTO_160812_0258.JPG: Opechancanough's Dilemma Paramount Chief Powhatan initially tried to ally himself with the English settlers. During the winter of 1609-1610, the colonists raided Indian food supplies and Powhatan ordered an attack. War raged until 1614, when Pocahontas married John Rolfe. Meanwhile the English population grew, their settlements encroached on Indian lands, and they formed alliances with other Indian nations. When Powhatan died in 1618, his younger brother Opechancanough decided that something needed to be done about the English.
61. VHSSTO_160812_0263.JPG: Skull of Martin's Hundred Colonist, 1622 (Reproduction) In 1978, archaeologists found evidence of the 1622 attacks.
62. VHSSTO_160812_0267.JPG: Skull of Martin's Hundred Colonist, 1622 (Reproduction) In 1978, archaeologists found evidence of the 1622 attacks. Of the early settlements, Martin's Hundred, located seven miles from Jamestown, suffered the greatest lost [sic] of life and complete destruction. In search of physical evidence of the massacre there, archaeologists, uncovered this skull of a tall, muscular man, whose forehead had been split by a bladed weapon, perhaps a spade or cleaver. A cut on the left brow suggests he was scalped.
63. VHSSTO_160812_0272.JPG: English Settlements Attacked, 22 March 1622 [310 of the 350+ dead accounted for] Other English Settlements, 1622 [where no deaths were reported]
64. VHSSTO_160812_0277.JPG: The First Ironworks in North America Soon after 1607, Falling Creek was identified as a near perfect site for heavy industry; it offered ore deposits, power from falling water, and access to the navigable portion of the James River. In 1619, Benjamin Bluett was hired as ironmaster. After Bluett's premature death in 1621, he was replaced by John Berkley. Berkley was killed during the 1622 uprising. Records indicate the ironworks may have produced some quantity of iron before its destruction. An iron blast furnace was erected at Falling Creek as early as 1619. Whether it reached full operation before it was destroyed in 1622 is unknown.
65. VHSSTO_160812_0279.JPG: Iron axe head and spikes, about 1781 These objects were found at the site of Falling Creek Ironworks Objects found at the Falling Creek site are dated with uncertainty because iron was worked there during two time periods. Records fail to indicate whether or not the 1619 blast furnace was ever brought into full operation. A forge established at the site in 1750 by Archibald Cary created iron objects. Experts believe this axe head and these spikes are from the Cary forge.
66. VHSSTO_160812_0286.JPG: Iron axe head and spikes, about 1781 These objects were found at the site of Falling Creek Ironworks
67. VHSSTO_160812_0289.JPG: Falling Creek Ironworks After 1622 Several attempts after 1622 to restore the ironworks failed. In the late 1600s William Byrd I built a gristmill at Falling Creek; its partially standing stone walls survive. A forge was established at Falling Creek in 1750 by Archibald Cary. It was burned by the British under Benedict Arnold in 1781. Its wooden foundations were uncovered in 2007.
68. VHSSTO_160812_0293.JPG: A False and Fatal Sense of Security One colonist testified that before the 1622 attack, Indians "came unarmed into our houses and in some places sat down at breakfast." Another wrote that "they became perfectly acquainted with all our English strength, knowing at all times when and where to find our people, in condition of defense of indefensible. They brought presents of deer, turkeys, fish, and fruits the evening before. All men were lulled into a fatal security."
69. VHSSTO_160812_0297.JPG: "We have understood the great Massacre executed on our people in Virginia, in such a manner more miserable than death itself." -- The Virginia Company of London to Gov. Francis Wyatt
70. VHSSTO_160812_0302.JPG: Indian badges, about 1662 Passport badges were issued to control Indian entry into English territory.
71. VHSSTO_160812_0307.JPG: Indian badges, about 1662 Passport badges were issued to control Indian entry into English territory.
72. VHSSTO_160812_0311.JPG: Indian badges, about 1662 Passport badges were issued to control Indian entry into English territory. These medals are engraved "Ye King of Patomeck" (Potomac) and "Ye King of Machotick" (Machodoc). A 1662 act of the assembly ordered "that badges, silver [for chiefs] and copper, with the name of the [Indian] towne graved upon them, be given to all the adjacent tribes" and warned that "if any damage or injury be done" to the settlers by an Indian, his chief would "be answerable for it."
73. VHSSTO_160812_0313.JPG: George Percy -- a Jamestown resident from 1607 to 1612 -- left accounts of how the English routinely massacred the Indians, which he called "savages."
74. VHSSTO_160812_0316.JPG: Why the Indians Attacked In 1610, with seventy men, George Percy massacred the Paspahegh and Chickahominy. At one settlement, he "put some fifteen or sixteen to the sword" and ordered his soldiers "to burne their houses and to cut down their corne." Percent's men also "put [a captured] Queen to the sworde" and "put her children to death by throwing them overboard and shooting out their braines in the water." The Colonial Response Following the 1622 attack, the colonists banned Indians from entering their settlements, retreated to fewer outposts, attacked in retaliation, acquired new lands, and built a wall of palisades around their territory. After three Anglo-Powhatan Wars (1610-1614, 1622-1626, and 1644-1646) and followed by attacks during Bacon's Rebellion, the Treaty of 1677 set up reservations for each tribe, which almost completely removed them from the landscape. "We, who hitherto have had possession of no more ground that their waste and our purchase, may now by right of war invade the country, and those who sought to destroy us whereby we shall enjoy their cultivated places." -- A Virginia settler, in the aftermath of the 1622 attack
75. VHSSTO_160812_0322.JPG: Second Anglo-Powhatan War The War initiated by the Indian attacks in 1622 followed eight years of peace between the English and the Powhatan. On March 22, a well-coordinated assault on the English plantations along the James River was launched by small bands of Opechancanough's men. Survivors recorded that they "basely and barbarously" murdered the colonists with their own tools, "not sparing eyther the age or sexe, man, woman or childe." About 350 people were killed, a quarter of the English population. These losses were sustained on about half of the outlying plantations.
76. VHSSTO_160812_0325.JPG: A Distant Dominion
77. VHSSTO_160812_0326.JPG: Virginia in the Atlantic World
78. VHSSTO_160812_0330.JPG: Virginia in the Atlantic World Tobacco proved to be good as gold for Virginians. Wealth from its sale and easy navigation of the colony's rivers encouraged global trade. Virginians traded with the Dutch for decades but mainly with England and Scotland. Tobacco was exchanged for manufactured goods, servants, and slaves. Fear of foreign invasion––by Spanish, French, and (later) Dutch ships––lingered. British trade regulations––intended to bring money and raw materials to England––were so poorly enforced that by 1750 Americans had established a higher standard of living than that of England.
79. VHSSTO_160812_0337.JPG: Money to Spend Archaeologists have unearthed abundant evidence that wealthy early English settlers in Virginia enjoyed a wide range of consumer goods available to participants in the transatlantic world economy. In the 1600s, houses were impermanent wooden structures built around poles set into the ground like fence posts; furniture was crude and scarce. But even then, settlers used the profits from tobacco sales to purchase fine European goods.
80. VHSSTO_160812_0344.JPG: The Transatlantic Trade Goods and slaves came to Virginia from Africa, Europe, and Asia. Initially, Dutch vessels competed with English ships carrying tobacco to such ports as Amsterdam and Rotterdam as well as London and Edinburgh. In 1651, the Navigation Acts required that goods be landed at English ports then reshipped to America -- making English merchants agents for Virginia planters.
81. VHSSTO_160812_0345.JPG: Populating Early Virginia Lured from England by the promise of wealth from raising tobacco and the eventual ownership of land, 50,000 indentured servants traveled to Virginia in the mid-1600s. Comprising three-quarters of all new arrivals, each would work four to seven years in exchange for transportation. After Bacon's Rebellion in 1676, a more controllable workforce of enslaved Africans was put into place.
82. VHSSTO_160812_0352.JPG: 1676 Empire in Crisis "[Its] mischiefs overspread all Virginia." -- Virginia planter Thomas Matthew on Bacon's Rebellion, 1705
83. VHSSTO_160812_0357.JPG: Jordan's Journey, 1621–1640 Excavations at this site in the 1980s yielded information about the architecture of early settlements, lifestyles and standards of living, and the extent of trade in early Virginia. Following the 1622 uprising, survivors relocated at eight Virginia settlements; one was Jordan's Journey. Four complexes were built there to house fifty-five people (fifteen households). Six buildings provided housing; sixteen were agricultural. The largest complex -- Samuel Jordan's -- was the size of a football field. Its principle residence was a "longhouse," 55 x 16 feet, wooden and earthfast (built on posts set into the ground).
84. VHSSTO_160812_0362.JPG: Digging Jordan's Journey Jordan's Journey sits on a point of land that protrudes from the James River's south bank, east of where the James and Appomattox rivers converge. Humans have lived there for thousands of years. In the 1980s, rumors that the site would be sold to a land developer sparked the Virginia Department of Historic Resources to lead a series of excavations that revealed it to be one of the richest archaeological sites from seventeenth-century America.
85. VHSSTO_160812_0365.JPG: Resettling the Settlers Following the Powhatan attacks of 1622, officials in Jamestown ordered the occupants of outlying plantations to retreat to eight settlements that were then strengthened and entrusted to military commanders. The governor informed England that "he thought fit to hold a few outlying places, including the plantation of Mr. Samuel Jordan's." Neighbors from directly across the river were among those who resettled at Jordan's Journey.
86. VHSSTO_160812_0369.JPG: Sir William Berkeley (pronounced Bar-clay) b 1605 / d 9 July 1677 As royal governor (1642-1652 and 1660-1677), Berkeley transformed a society in flux into one controlled by a few elite families. He vigorously persecuted political and religious dissenters. He wanted no public schools or printing presses in Virginia because learning produced civil discontent and heresy, and printing presses spread these sorts of "problems." He controlled assembly members with land grants and well-paying public positions.
87. VHSSTO_160812_0374.JPG: Jack-of-Plate quilted body armor, before 1600 This fragment of armor, made of wool and iron, was excavated at Jordan's Journey. Following the 1622 Powhatan attack, the London Company reported to the colonists that King James I was sending from the armory at the Tower of London a shipment of weapons and armor to be used in a new offensive to replant abandoned plantations and drive away the Indians. The armor was antiquated -- ineffective against gunfire -- but authorities thought it might prove useful against the Indians.
88. VHSSTO_160812_0377.JPG: Jack-of-Plate quilted body armor, before 1600 This fragment of armor, made of wool and iron, was excavated at Jordan's Journey.
89. VHSSTO_160812_0382.JPG: Virginia and the Planter Class Governor William Berkeley set out to imitate the society of inequality of wealth and education that he knew in England. By the late 1660s he had succeeded in creating a small governing elite. Berkeley recruited from England both younger sons with no inheritance and supporters of the king who were fleeing a civil war. He promoted them to lucrative offices and granted them large estates. They established an upper class made up of powerful families that became dynasties. They utilized slave labor to cultivate tobacco. Until after the American Revolution, they in effect ruled Virginia. [The middle and lower class families -- the vast majority of the population -- have been forgotten.]
90. VHSSTO_160812_0383.JPG: "The Worst Country in the World" In 1697, Virginia was labeled the "best" and "worst"––it was a potential Garden of Eden but its "natural advantages" were undeveloped. It had become a place to deposit "desperate Rogues" and other dregs of English society. And the colony was disparaged because tobacco cultivation had brought settlement along rivers without the towns found in civilized England and Europe. The image of Virginia needed reinvention.
91. VHSSTO_160812_0386.JPG: The Pursuit of the Pastoral Ideal After 1700, Virginians began to define themselves differently and to accept their rural settlement. The absence of an urban society and diverse economy were no longer embarrassing. The dream of an idyllic pastoral world -- currently a goal in contemporary Britain -- was readily available in Virginia. Planters came to believe that their colony should be appreciated rather than criticized for its rurality. Taking the Lead in Architecture The colony's celebrated Georgian (colonial) mansions -- long recognized as a significant contribution of American culture -- demonstrate the importance to Virginia planters of modeling their hoes on those of their contemporaries in England. By using Roman design elements and building near tranquil rivers, they hoped Virginia might no longer be considered a backwater outpost but rather a remote part of England.
92. VHSSTO_160812_0389.JPG: The Poisonous Fruit in the Virginia Garden Slavery discredited all arguments that pastoral virtue had been attained. In 1771 a writer declared in the Virginia Gazette, "we should have manifested a more genuine abhorrence of slavery." The irony is that although it blocked the path to rural virtue, it freed Virginia's leaders from farming and positioned them to read and theorize -- in the manner of the ancients and their European disciples -- about matters of state.
93. VHSSTO_160812_0393.JPG: early 1800s Key basket used by the mistress of a plantation Key baskets came to symbolize the authority and burdensome responsibility of the women who supervised domestic slaves. Its keys locked smoke houses, sugar chests, and cellarets.
94. VHSSTO_160812_0399.JPG: 1753 Portrait of Robert Carter III by Thomas Hudson of London
95. VHSSTO_160812_0404.JPG: about 1735 Portrait of Mary Isham Randolph by an unidentified Virginia artist
96. VHSSTO_160812_0417.JPG: Causes of the Revolution After 1763, Great Britain underestimated the economic and political maturity of the Americans. Those colonists did not care to give up the high standard of living they enjoyed. To help fund the expense of defending America, Great Britain passed the Stamp Act (1765), which taxed paper, and the Townshend Act (1767), which taxed imports, tea, and glass. Colonists responded by boycotting British merchandise and dumping tea into Boston Harbor (the "Boston Tea Party"). They argued that taxes could not be levied on them by a Parliament in London in which they had no representation.
97. VHSSTO_160812_0421.JPG: "Patrick Henry Arguing the Parson's Cause at the Hanover County Courthouse," painted about 1834, 1965.2 Colonists subsidized the salaries of priests and were pleased when new laws reduced those salaries. When King George III issued a veto, clergy sued their communities for back pay. Patrick Henry, defending Hanover County, asserted that a king who vetoed popular laws was a tyrant who should not be obeyed.
98. VHSSTO_160812_0427.JPG: Choosing Sides [Loyalists were colonists who remained loyal to the British crown; they were called at the time Tories and Royalists. They numbered about 500,000 or 15 to 20 percent of the American population.] Some planters––like Ralph Wormeley––remained firmly Loyalist. Others, though inclined toward moderation, shifted to the patriot cause even when faced with family division. Edmund Pendleton stated in 1774, "we utterly disavow [independence]." Carter Braxton was criticized because his wife and father-in-law were Loyalists. Both Pendleton and Braxton ultimately signed the Declaration of Independence.
99. VHSSTO_160812_0430.JPG: Portrait of Ralph Wormeley V, painted in England upon his graduation from Trinity Hall, Cambridge in 1763, 1951.22 Some planters––like Ralph Wormeley––remained firmly Loyalist. Wormeley said that he bore "the accursed Tyranny [of rebellion] with… impatient mortification."
100. VHSSTO_160812_0437.JPG: The Revolutionary War in Virginia Looking to find support from both resident Loyalists and blacks, the British attempted to bring the war to Virginia twice, with dismal results. At its start, Governor Dunmore's Loyalist and slave forces were driven out of Norfolk. Near its end -- when British raiders sent Gov. Thomas Jefferson fleeing from Richmond -- hundreds of slaves escaped but so did Jefferson, and the defeat at Yorktown soon followed.
101. VHSSTO_160812_0440.JPG: Opposed to the Revolution Loyalists were colonists who remained loyal to the British crown; they were called at the time Tories and Royalists. They numbered about 500,000 or 15 to 20 percent of the American population. Many were older, established, opposed violence, cautious, thought the war morally wrong, and feared that commerce and business would suffer outside the empire. They were subject to confiscation of property and public harassment. John Murray, Fourth Earl of Dunmore, the last royal governor of Virginia, 1771-1776.
102. VHSSTO_160812_0443.JPG: Dunmore's Proclamation of 1775: Freedom for Slaves The royal governor's promise of freedom to escaped slaves who would fight for the king alienated many planters and political leaders, who until then had remained loyal. Dunmore recruited the Queen's Own Loyal Virginia Regiment, composed of white Loyalists, and a regiment of slaves. Dunmore took the offensive at Great Bridge but was so soundly defeated that he burned nearby Norfolk and fled.
103. VHSSTO_160812_0446.JPG: The Black Loyalists The British repeatedly offered freedom to slaves who would join their side; between 20,000 and 100,000 did so. Thomas Jefferson estimated that 30,000 slaves escaped during the brief British invasion of Virginia in 1781, including twenty-three of his own. In the peace treaty ending the war, the British agreed to leave "without carrying away any Negroes." Some 9,000 to 10,000 black Loyalists found refuge in Canada.
104. VHSSTO_160812_0449.JPG: Virginia Objects to Stamp Act Taxation The outrage of Virginia planters––whose standard of living rested on the price of tobacco in England and prices merchants charged them for goods––found expression in Patrick Henry's "Virginia Resolves to the Stamp Act." Henry quoted the 1606 Virginia colony charter that promised "all the Priviledges, Franchises & Immunities that have at any Time been held, enjoyed, & possessed by the People of Great Britain."
105. VHSSTO_160812_0452.JPG: 1774 Thomas Jefferson, A Summary View of the Rights of British America
106. VHSSTO_160812_0457.JPG: 1765 Stamp Act Stamp
107. VHSSTO_160812_0461.JPG: 1765 Stamp Act Stamp Parliament passed the Stamp Act to help defray the cost of the French and Indian War. Colonists were levied a tax on various papers, documents, and playing cards, which were "stamped" when payment was made. Often the document was embossed, creating an impressed stamp. Displayed here is an adhesive stamp -- akin to a modern postage stamp.
108. VHSSTO_160812_0464.JPG: Servitude in Colonial Virginia
109. VHSSTO_160812_0467.JPG: Servitude in Colonial Virginia To meet skyrocketing labor demands, white indentured servants were recruited from England, mainly to work the tobacco fields. In time, enslaved Africans took their place. Virginia's first Africans -- stolen from Portuguese slave traders -- arrived in 1619. But white indentured servants made up 80 percent of the colony's workforce until the 1670s. They were freed after four to seven years of labor. By the 1690s, in some counties blacks outnumbered whites in the workforce. The shift occurred because of English involvement in the slave trade, Bacon's Rebellion of 1676, and improved conditions in England that diminished the labor supply.
110. VHSSTO_160812_0470.JPG: 1616 John Deacon, Tobacco Tortured: Or, the Filthie Fume of Tobacco Fearful of health hazards, King James I of England denounced tobacco. King Charles I endorsed the economic gain tobacco would bring to Virginia. Indentured servants were lured to the colony to grow it. When their supply failed to meet demand -- and when enslaved labor was seen to produce the greatest tobacco profits -- the importation of slaves increased. By 1700, a rigid system of perpetual racial bondage was in place.
111. VHSSTO_160812_0475.JPG: A Slow Poison White Europeans saw Africans as non-Christian, lesser beings, who enslaved one another. Throughout the 1600s, however, white indentured servants experienced equally oppressive working conditions. Virginia laws grouped servants and slaves together and all who were not Christian were deemed slaves. Neither was allowed to run away, but a slave could not be armed, and for resisting he could be killed.
112. VHSSTO_160812_0478.JPG: 1861-1865 Twist of Tobacco
113. VHSSTO_160812_0483.JPG: The Middle Passage Portuguese and English ships carried goods to the west coast of Africa were [where] they were traded for captured people. On the second, or "middle," part of the journey, these ships crossed the Atlantic Ocean. They enslaved were shackled together on decks with ceilings as low as 4-1/2 feet and experienced conditions "most impure." Fifteen percent of them died from disease, suffocation, suicide, refusal to eat, or revolt.
114. VHSSTO_160812_0486.JPG: Marketing Virginia Tobacco A demand for Virginia tobacco in England led merchants to label packages for sale. Images of black me, women, or children growing and harvesting tobacco, packing it in barrels and smoking it were used. These images tend to have African features and Native American dress. Merchants joined two stereotypes to form a figure that became a symbol of Virginia.
115. VHSSTO_160812_0489.JPG: From Servitude to Slavery Indentured servants worked from dawn until dusk, six days a week. Their servitude was more like slavery than anything existing in England. By 1700, chattel slavery was replacing indentured servitude. Slaves were often more easily controlled, were bonded for life, and children born to enslaved women were themselves enslaved. Even religious conversion did not change the status of enslaved Africans.
116. VHSSTO_160812_0493.JPG:
  
  Embarkations Disembarkations
  
  Documented 10,160,000 81% 8,763,000 82%
  
  Estimated 2,361,000 19% 1,940,000 18%
  
  Total 12,521,000 10,703,000
117. VHSSTO_160812_0498.JPG: Virginia's Colonial Backcountry
118. VHSSTO_160812_0500.JPG: Virginia's Colonial Backcountry The colonial backcountry reached into the Shenandoah Valley. Beyond were the Appalachian Mountains, a protective natural barrier from French settlements that stretched from Canada to Louisiana. To shield against Indian attacks and French expansion, and to deter runaway slaves from establishing colonies in the mountains, British and colonial leaders encouraged settlement of the Shenandoah Valley. German, Scots-Irish, and English settlers introduced ethnic and religious diversity there and established small farms where they grew grain and bred livestock. Absent was the eastern Virginia dependence on tobacco and slavery.
119. VHSSTO_160812_0503.JPG: Women in the Backcountry In the late 1700s, men looking for new opportunities relocated their families to new land. Women accompanied them reluctantly. The loss of kinship networks was traumatic for wives and daughters, as was reestablishing a family home in unknown territory. Small pieces of jewelry easily carried west by their owners could be important reminders of loved ones left behind.
120. VHSSTO_160812_0506.JPG: George Washington's First Career, 1748-1751 Surveyors measured and recorded tracts of land claimed as the backcountry was settled. George Washington's work as a surveyor provided an income and an opportunity to explore lands available at bargain prices. As a landowner in the Shenandoah Valley, Washington was elected to the House of Burgesses. As a soldier, he drew on a surveyor's understanding of maps -- how best to navigate in unfamiliar territory and how to read the landscape to best position his troops. about 1730 A surveyor's scale, protractor, and graphometer (without sights) like those used by Washington.
121. VHSSTO_160812_0514.JPG: about 1770 Gold bracelet of watercolor on ivory miniature portraits of Margaret Jones and her children of Rockingham County
122. VHSSTO_160812_0519.JPG: Knights of the Golden Horseshoe By 1710 there was growing pressure to enlarge the Virginia colony. In 1716, Lt. Gov. Alexander Spotswood led an expedition of about fifty en, including four Meherrin Indians, over the Blue Ridge Mountains and claimed the Shenandoah Valley in the name of George I. The party took their name from the horseshoe-shaped pins made of gold given by Spotswood to the officers.
123. VHSSTO_160812_0531.JPG: 1780-1800 Pipe Tomahawk with German silver, brass and copper inlays By inlaying a tomahawk with silver, brass, and copper, the English made it a fashion accessory for the gentlemen pioneers who played a large role in westward exploration.
124. VHSSTO_160812_0533.JPG: 1786 Plat of 100 acres of land in Washington County owned by John Heten
125. VHSSTO_160812_0536.JPG: 1810-1820 Copperplate printing press
126. VHSSTO_160812_0540.JPG: about 1717 Seal of Virginia
127. VHSSTO_160812_0545.JPG: The French & Indian War The Virginia colony's 1606 grant from James I included land north of the Ohio River. Sixty-three years later a French explorer laid claim to the Ohio Valley. The two nations were locked on a collision course. In 1749, when Virginia land speculators looked to push settlement north of the Ohio River, French troops out of Canada and Virginia soldiers commanded by young George Washington skirmished in what is now southwestern Pennsylvania. They initiated a world war between the English and French (known globally as the Seven Years' War) that ended with the expulsion of France from the mainland of North America.
128. VHSSTO_160812_0551.JPG: 1622 to 1763 A Distant Dominion
129. VHSSTO_160812_0554.JPG: A Distant Dominion 1622 to 1763 The colony prospered. Tobacco -- grown by indentured servants and enslaved Africans -- sustained the economy. The first popularly elected legislative body in the New World was established. Following the failed Indian uprising in 1622 and on orders from London, the native peoples were "removed" and reduced in number to 3,000 by a "War of Extermination." During the next hundred years, the remainder of Virginia's population expanded a hundred fold. Social inequalities and frontier conflicts with the French and with Indians made this distant dominion increasingly difficult to govern from London.
130. VHSSTO_160812_0558.JPG: The First Families
131. VHSSTO_160812_0566.JPG: The First Families The labor of slaves and indentured servants made possible the emergence of an upper class with a wealthy lifestyle unimaginable to the fist settlers. From 1720 to the Revolution, some three dozen wealthy Virginia families built about four dozen mansions. One visitor from England wrote in 1724, "They live in the same neat manner, dress after the same modes, and behave themselves exactly as the gentry in London. The habits, life, customs, computations &c. of the Virginians are much the same as about London, which they esteem their home."
132. VHSSTO_160812_0567.JPG: Establishing Society on a Colonial Frontier The "First Families of Virginia" were interrelated families who, by their second and third generations, were able to wield economic, political, and social power. They felt a need -- as the first Fitzhugh put it -- to present a "creditable" [or trustworthy] appearance in order to live "comfortably" among people of the same social status. Mansions, portraits, and fine decorative objects conveyed the desire "creditability."
133. VHSSTO_160812_0570.JPG: Heirs of the "First Families" At early ages, children were instructed in manners and dressed as refined adults so they would know how to maintain family status and carry it into the future. Portraits served to remind them of what was expected of them as adults. Parents were concerned that their heirs not fall back into low society, form which they had distanced themselves. The clothing and toy wagon are evidence that even children could "dress after the same modes, and behave themselves exactly as [their counterparts] in London."
134. VHSSTO_160812_0573.JPG: Women of the Upper Class Portraits in colonial Virginia are images about family and family perpetuation. Thus on canvas, the wife appears to be the equal of the husband, when in fact she was his subordinate in all decisions. She generally is portrayed as being a model of virtue and restraint, an idea derived from English "courtesy books" that taught upper class women that moral obligations accompany wealth. Rebecca Eskridge presents a sober, virtuous appearance. Early colonists, like Eskridge, had learned that in early Virginia, prosperity -- and even life itself -- could end unexpectedly and quickly.
135. VHSSTO_160812_0581.JPG: The Pursuit of Culture William Byrd II boasted: "([W]e who have plantations) ... have no bills to pay... I have... every soart of trade amongst my servants." Slavery gave Byrd the wealth and time to collect art (his thirty portraits formed the largest collection in America) and a library (4.000 books). He kept a secret diary in part to measure his success at being a gentleman. William Byrd II developed refined tastes in England, where he was educated and became a member of London's prestigious Royal Society. He founded Richmond and Petersburg. Accompanied by a slave, who is exotically dressed and who awaits her commands, Lucy Byrd is presented as a young woman whose husband's wealth would give her whatever she wanted.
136. VHSSTO_160812_0587.JPG: 1650-1675 Gold wedding band found in York COunty, probably made in England Women could easily find husbands in seventeenth-century Virginia because men outnumbered them three or four to one. A wise suitor engraved on this ring, "Time shall tell, I love thee well."
137. VHSSTO_160812_0597.JPG: Indentured servants "when they are free, may work Day-Labour. Or else rent a small Plantation for a Trifle almost. Or else turn Oversees, if they are expert, industrious, and careful. Or follow their Trade, if they have been brought up to any; especially Smiths, Carpenters, Taylors, Sawyers, Coopers, Bricklayers, &c." -- Hugh Jones, The Present State of Virginia (London, 1624)
138. VHSSTO_160812_0602.JPG: Forgotten Families Virginia was the wealthiest and most populated colony, but the wealth was controlled and enjoyed by one a few dozen elite and white families. The enslaved comprised 40 percent of the population; another 40 percent was poor and white, descended in part from indentured servants. The Native American population was miniscule, having dropped from 15,000-20,000 people to only 3,000. Almost all farmed. These "Forgotten Families" endured as before, without the fine furniture, silver, porcelain, and painted portraits introduced into Virginia by the upper class.
139. VHSSTO_160812_0608.JPG: The Silent Majority Ordinary people, self-described as the "commonality," were restricted by laws the upper class introduced through both the General Assembly and the county governments. One law was taxation by person and not by landownership. One Virginian grieved, "a poor man that hath nothing to maintain himself wife & childr[en] pays as much [taxes]... as he that hath 20000 acres."
140. VHSSTO_160812_0610.JPG: Enslaved Families Africans were first brought to Virginia in 1619. Both males and females proved to be highly effective workers in the tobacco fields. Between 1690 and 1770, Virginians imported an additional 90,000 Africans. In 1705, the first slave code was drafted. With a government of, by, and for the tobacco planters, such laws benefited the slaveowners, not the slaves.
141. VHSSTO_160812_0612.JPG: Forgotten Children Poor, enslaved, and Native American children did not remain children very long; all were put to work at a very early age. When physically large enough to cut wood, they tended livestock, cared for crops, cooked, or sewed, leaving little time for play or schooling. A white family had, on average, six or seven children -- one-fourth to one-half of whom died before age eleven.
142. VHSSTO_160812_0615.JPG: Archaeological Evidence The elite left homes, portraits, furniture, silver, and letters for historians to study. The enslaved, poor farmers, and the craftsmen left much less evidence behind. Nevertheless, manuscripts left by wealthy landowners listing the names of their tenants and the archaeological excavation at home sites, trash pits, and outhouses reveal a great deal about the the lives of the "forgotten" families.
143. VHSSTO_160812_0619.JPG: Tenants and Yeomen Many former indentured servants and their descendents were overburdened with taxes and could only afford to rent the land on which they worked. Nevertheless, by 1750, two-thirds of adult white men were "yeomen" who owned small farms. Although land ownership gave them the right to vote, they had relatively little influence in a society where public offices were mainly appointed by the gentry.
144. VHSSTO_160812_0621.JPG: Forgotten Women Poor white women cooked, cleaned, doctored, sewed, cared for animals, and grew vegetables -- arduous responsibilities almost as grueling as those of African and Native American women. To stabilize the social order and elevate their status, if only a little, the General Assembly exempted white women who did not work in the tobacco fields from a tax that was levied on the owners of enslaved black women who did. Legal rights disappeared when they married, as early as at age thirteen. 18th century Tea Cup, Deer Chase, Middlesex County
145. VHSSTO_160812_0624.JPG: The Voice The Pen & The Sword
146. VHSSTO_160812_0628.JPG: Patrick Henry was the VOICE of the Revolution. His incendiary speeches turned public opinion in support of American independence from Great Britain.
147. VHSSTO_160812_0630.JPG: Thomas Jefferson was the PEN of the Revolution. His eloquent writings provided justification for America's independence from Great Britain.
148. VHSSTO_160812_0633.JPG: George Washington was the SWORD of the Revolution. His masterful command of volunteer forces brought victory over the most powerful army in the world.
149. VHSSTO_160812_0635.JPG: From British Colony to American State
150. VHSSTO_160812_0644.JPG: The Voice, the Pen & the Sword Patrick Henry (the Voice), Thomas Jefferson (the Pen), and George Washington (the Sword) played leading roles in the American Revolution. Patrick Henry's "Liberty or Death" speech, delivered in Richmond in 1775, galvanized many Virginians to support the Revolution. Thomas Jefferson's authorship of the Declaration of Independence outlined the case for American self-rule and justifications for revolution. George Washington's inspiring leadership and surprising defeat of a superior British army of the battlefields secured American independence.
151. VHSSTO_160812_0647.JPG: Patrick Henry b 29 May 1736 / d 6 June 1799 Henry was "the greatest orator that ever lived." -- Thomas Jefferson Beginning in 1763, Patrick Henry delivered daring speeches that attacked the power of the English monarchy and government and advanced colonial rights. His powerful style of speaking was shaped by the evangelical preacher Samuel Davies, to whom he listened as a youth. George Mason explained, "Every word he says commands attention, and your passions are no longer your own when he addresses them."
152. VHSSTO_160812_0651.JPG: Thomas Jefferson Planter, politician, author Albemarle County b 13 April 1743 / d 4 July 1826 "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal..." -- Thomas Jefferson, July 4, 1775 Jefferson was not known to be a fiery speaker, but he was known for his skill as a writer when he was selected to join the Committee of Five that would draft the Declaration of Independence. He worked for two-and-a-half weeks and created a document that justified American independence and outlined a vision of equality and justice that remains the American ideal.
153. VHSSTO_160812_0655.JPG: George Washington Soldier, planter, politician b 22 February 1732 / d 14 December 1799 "I have been called upon by the unanimous voice of the Colonies to take the command of the Continental Army." -- George Washington, June 19, 1775 Washington's greatest contribution to American independence was his understanding that the army's success depended on avoiding decisive battles with the British and maintaining the support of Congress. Throughout the war he faced chronic shortages of men, weapons, and supplies, but he maintained the army's loyalty not only to him but also to the new nation.
154. VHSSTO_160812_0658.JPG: Virginians Lead the Way Patrick Henry called for "liberty or death" in March 1775, and by June, George Washington was sent to Boston to lead the colonial troops against the British. A year later, in May 1776, Virginia declared its independence and introduced a resolution at the Continental Congress that resulted in the declaration written by another Virginian, Thomas Jefferson.
155. VHSSTO_160812_0660.JPG: Patrick Henry's eyeglasses, about 1760-1799 These spectacles played a role in Patrick Henry's theatrics
156. VHSSTO_160812_0664.JPG: Patrick Henry's eyeglasses, about 1760-1799 These spectacles played a role in Patrick Henry's theatrics After interviewing contemporaries who had seen Patrick Henry's speeches and watched him entrance his audiences, one historian noted that, "If his remarks were to be brief, his spectacles remained on his nose. But if he ever was seen to give his spectacles a cant to the top of his wig, it was a declaration of war, and his adversaries must stand clear."
157. VHSSTO_160812_0666.JPG: Thomas Jefferson's writing desk, 1776 (reproduction) The desk on which Jefferson wrote the document that announced America's independence
158. VHSSTO_160812_0670.JPG: Thomas Jefferson's writing desk, 1776 (reproduction) The desk on which Jefferson wrote the document that announced America's independence
159. VHSSTO_160812_0672.JPG: Thomas Jefferson's writing desk, 1776 (reproduction) The desk on which Jefferson wrote the document that announced America's independence The creation in the early nineteenth century of a reproduction of the mahogany desk on which Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence points to the importance that citizens of the early republic placed on its founding. The original, which resides at the Smithsonian, was designed by Jefferson while a delegate at congress in 1776, but he had been thinking about the rights of men long before.
160. VHSSTO_160812_0675.JPG: Commanding the Continental Army, 1775-1783 Letter from General George Washington to John Parke Custis, Morristown, New Jersey, 22 January 1777
161. VHSSTO_160812_0678.JPG: Commanding the Continental Army, 1775-1783 Letter from General George Washington to John Parke Custis, Morristown, New Jersey, 22 January 1777 Washington routinely reported to Congress about his progress and setbacks and pleaded to governors to fill militia units. His letters to his wife and stepson, John Parke Custis, addressed both the military and domestic. Here, he writes to his stepson that he "might have cleared the Jerseys entirely of the Enemy" if his army was not so small and "a mixed, motley crew."
162. VHSSTO_160812_0681.JPG: The Revolutionary War in Virginia Virginia played a critical role in the winning of independence when the British army was trapped and defeated at Yorktown. In 1775, Lord Dunmore, the royal governor, was repulsed at Great Bridge and forced to set up a government-in-exile in Loyalist Norfolk. In 1781, British forces attempting to support Lord Cornwallis's army in North Carolina were engaged at the supply center of Petersburg. A combined French and American army under George Washington pinned down and besieged that same army at Yorktown, where Cornwallis surrendered.
163. VHSSTO_160812_0685.JPG: Virginia's Wartime Leader In April 1775, when the royal governor seized gunpowder stored for the public defense, Patrick Henry led the Hanover County militia to Williamsburg to demand its return. He briefly commanded all of the colony's forces. He served as Virginia's first post-colonial governor from 1776 to 1779 and in the House of Delegates until 1784.
164. VHSSTO_160812_0687.JPG: The Lee Brothers The children of Thomas and Hannah Lee of Stratford Hall were prominent Revolutionary leaders. Richard Henry Lee is best known for his motion in the Second Continental Congress calling for American independence. He and his brother, Francis Lightfoot Lee, signed the Declaration of Independence. Two additional brothers, Arthur and William Lee, served as American diplomats to London, France, Austria, Prussia, and Spain with mixed success. Arthur Lee served in 1775 as the London correspondent of the Continental Congress and in 1776 as a commissioner to negotiate a treaty with France.
165. VHSSTO_160812_0690.JPG: George Washington's Secret Weapon Martha Washington sought a life centered on family, but her husband's celebrity thrust her into the public eye. From 1776 until the end of the war, she traveled to winter encampments to serve as her husband's confidante and as hostess to officers' wives. As First Lady, Martha endured the pressures of her celebrity, writing, "I am still determined to be cheerful and happy."
166. VHSSTO_160812_0694.JPG: The Victory at Yorktown, 1781 British forces had captured Charleston and pushed into the Carolinas and Virginia. Lord Cornwallis, with an army of 7,000, established a base of operations at the port of Yorktown. Washington, encamped outside New York City, sent a force under the marquis de Lafayette to confront him. When a large French navy arrived to assist, all moved to entrap Cornwallis's army. With his surrender, the British lost their resolve to continue the war.
167. VHSSTO_160812_0697.JPG: Daniel Morgan's sword, about 1776 The inscription translates, "Draw me not without reason." On the reverse: "Sheath me not without honor." Daniel Morgan, captain of a Virginia rifle company, clashed with authority figures throughout his life. A gifted battlefield tactician, he employed guerrilla tactics learned from Indians. Morgan's efficient marksmen saw action throughout the northern campaigns.. In the South, they won one of the most decisive victories of the war, at Cowpens, South Carolina, where Morgan tricked and captured most of a British army of light infantry.
168. VHSSTO_160812_0702.JPG: before 1781 Helmet of a British cavalryman killed in a raid on Charlottesville in 1781
169. VHSSTO_160812_0707.JPG: Portrait of Patrick Henry, 1851 copy of 1815 original derived from a 1795 watercolor, 1851.1
170. VHSSTO_160812_0711.JPG: Peter Francisco Known as the "Virginia Giant," fifteen-year-old Francisco stood 6.5 feet tall and weighed 260 pounds when he enlisted in the 10th Virginia Infantry. He fought in the New York and New Jersey campaigns of 1777-1779 and was twice wounded. After reenlisting, he was wounded at Camden, South Carolina. Returning home to Buckingham County, his encounter with British cavalry became legendary.
171. VHSSTO_160812_0716.JPG: Revolutionary Double Agent Serving as a spy for the Americans, James Armistead Lafayette, an enslaved African American, posed as a runaway slave to earn the confidence of British generals. The information he gathered contributed to American victory at Yorktown, but James was not emancipated until 1787. He took "Lafayette" as his last name to honor his former commander, the marquis de Lafayette.
172. VHSSTO_160812_0720.JPG: Daniel Morgan's Sword, about 1776, 1935.9.A-B The inscription translates, "Draw me not without reason." On the reverse: "Sheath me not without honor." Morgan, captain of a Virginia rifle company, won one of the most decisive victories of the war, at Cowpens, South Carolina.
173. VHSSTO_160812_0725.JPG: 1782 Plan de l'armee de Cornwallis attaquee et faitte prisoniere dans York Town
174. VHSSTO_160812_0729.JPG: 1795 Portrait of Martha Washington by Charles Willson Peale
175. VHSSTO_160812_0736.JPG: The Struggles for Religious Freedom The Church of England (Anglican Church) was the state-mandated religion in Virginia and funded by public taxes. Baptists and others were ill-treated. The church opposed Thomas Jefferson's bill to change the law in 1779, but a Virginia Statute for Establishing Religious Freedom was ultimately passed in 1786. Eloquently written, it influenced the 1st Amendment to the Constitution.
176. VHSSTO_160812_0740.JPG: "We have in this country extinguished forever the ambitious hope of making laws for the human mind." -- James Madison to Thomas Jefferson on the passage of the Statute for Establishing Religious Freedom, 1786
177. VHSSTO_160812_0742.JPG: The Federalists The ratification debate in Virginia revealed different visions about how powerful the federal government should be. George Washington and John Marshall had seen on the battlefield the need for a strong national -- or federal -- government. Wealthy northern bankers and businessmen agreed. Supporters were called "Federalists." The Antifederalists Those in opposition to a strong federal government were labeled "Antifederalists." They were led by Patrick Henry, George Mason, and James Monroe. They called for a bill of rights to protect the people from a constitution that delegated power to a president -- who might become king -- and to a federal court system that could dictate to the states. Thomas Jefferson championed the movement to return authority to the states.
178. VHSSTO_160812_0747.JPG: This map shows that although Virginia ultimately ratified the Constitution, regional differences clearly existed and the commonwealth was very much divided.
179. VHSSTO_160812_0748.JPG: "We the People" While the Revolutionary War was being waged on battlefields, Virginia's political leaders worked to conceive a government better than the one they had rejected. George Mason, James Madison, and Thomas Jefferson looked to philosophers like the Englishman John Locke for ideas about how nations should govern. They concluded that people -- meaning white men -- have inherent human rights to life and liberty, that governments serve the people by protecting those rights, and that governmental power should be divided and separate from the church.
180. VHSSTO_160812_0750.JPG: mid 19th century Portrait of Thomas Jefferson by Louis Mathieu Didier Guillaume
181. VHSSTO_160812_0753.JPG: Portrait of George Mason, 1857 copy of 1750 original by John Hesselius, 1858.2
182. VHSSTO_160812_0756.JPG: Cussing Cousins Thomas Jefferson and John Marshall -- distant cousins -- held radically different philosophies. Jefferson, a visionary, believed that the common man could best govern himself with a weak national government. Marshall thwarted Jefferson's presidency, and as chief justice of the Supreme Court, he established its authority to decide the constitutionality of laws and expanded federal powers beyond those outlined in the Constitution.
183. VHSSTO_160812_0759.JPG: Thomas Jefferson's Presidencies b 13 April 1743 / d 4 July 1826 As president, Thomas Jefferson set out to realize his vision of a weak federal government that would "free [men] to regulate their pursuits of industry and improvement." A peaceful international scene allowed the nation to prosper, and he purchased the Louisiana Territory. But in his second term, conflict between England and France caused Jefferson to initiate an Embargo Act that closed American ports and undermined the American economy.
184. VHSSTO_160812_0767.JPG: Portrait of Chief Justice John Marshall, 1832, 1988.8 The longest serving chief justice in American history, John Marshall made the Supreme Court coequal with the legislative and executive branches of government.
185. VHSSTO_160812_0769.JPG: Portrait of George Washington, 1856 copy of 1796 Gilbert Stuart original, 1857.2 George Washington accepted the presidency in part to insure the implementation of a strong federal government that would bring a diverse citizenry into a lasting union. His leadership enabled him to shape the new government. He made responsible appointments to the new agencies and courts. He influenced domestic legislation and directed foreign affairs.
186. VHSSTO_160812_0772.JPG: 1856 copy of 1804 original James Madison by Gilbert Stuart as copied by Thomas Sully James Madison conceived a constitution that divided power within the federal government (checks and balances) and between federal and state governments (federatism).
187. VHSSTO_160812_0775.JPG: The Three Branches of Government
188. VHSSTO_160812_0777.JPG: The Three Branches of Government John Marshall: Champion of a Strong Central Government The judicial branch interprets the meaning of laws, applies them to individual cases, and decided if they violate the Constitution. "The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish." -- The US Constitution, Article II John Marshall strengthened federal power by establishing the right of the Supreme Court to overrule unconstitutional executive and legislative legal action and unconstitutional state laws. In Marbury v. Madison, he empowered the Court to be the final arbiter of the constitutionality of federal law. In McCullough v. Maryland, Marshall rejected the doctrine that powers not specifically given to the federal government belong to the states.
189. VHSSTO_160812_0780.JPG: George Washington: The First President The executive branch carried out and enforces laws. It includes the president, vice president, the cabinet, executive departments, independent agencies, and other commissions. "The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Terms of four Years... together with the Vice President, chosen for the same Term." -- The US Constitution, Article II George Washington accepted the presidency in part to ensure the implementation of a strong federal government that would bring a diverse citizenry into a lasting union. Trusted by the people, his leadership enabled him to shape the new government. He made responsible appointments to the new agencies and courts. Effectively and quietly, he influenced domestic legislation and directed foreign affairs.
190. VHSSTO_160812_0784.JPG: James Madison: "Father of the Constitution" and Legislative Leader The legislative branch enacts legislation, confirms or rejects presidential appointments, and has the authority to declare war. It includes Congress (Senate and House of Representatives) and several agencies that provide support services to Congress. "All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives." -- The US Constitution, Article I James Madison called for a Constitutional Convention and arrived with a comprehensive plan––the Virginia Plan. Having read extensively on political theory, he led the debates and was the principal author of the U.S. Constitution. In 1789, Madison established his role as a leader in the new House of Representatives when he drafted basic laws that set this branch of government into motion.
191. VHSSTO_160812_0797.JPG: The Louisiana Purchase When Spain gave control of New Orleans and the Mississippi Valley to France, it threatened both American security and trade. Although the Constitution gave the president no authority to purchase territory, Thomas Jefferson authorized the purchase of all the land west of the Mississippi River from the French -- doubling the size of United States territory.
192. VHSSTO_160812_0800.JPG: Meriwether Lewis, copied by Horace Carpenter after Charles Willson Peale. Born in Albemarle County, Lewis was a soldier, then an aide to the president. Thomas Jefferson sent him to explore the Louisiana territory.
193. VHSSTO_160812_0801.JPG: The Lewis and Clark Expedition In 1803, President Thomas Jefferson selected his personal secretary, Meriwether Lewis, to lead an exploration of the Louisiana territory. Lewis enlisted noted mapmaker and frontiersman William Clark to co-command a Corps of Discovery. From May 1804 to September 1806, the expedition identified a route to the Pacific Ocean and blazed a pathway for the new nation to spread westward.
194. VHSSTO_160812_0808.JPG: Sacagawea Present-day Idaho and North Dakota b. about 1788 / d. 20 December 1812 Sacagawea as pregnant with her first child when the Corps of Discovery arrived near the Hidatsa Indian villages in the winter of 1804-1805. The Corps hired her and her husband, a Quebec trapper, as interpreters and guides. Before leaving, she gave birth to a son. Sacagawea was instrumental in the Corps' dealings with the Shoshone Indians and everywhere signaled the peaceful intent of the expedition.
195. VHSSTO_160812_0810.JPG: 2000 Sacagawea Dollar In 2000, the US mint issued a dollar coin featuring Sacagawea with her son, Jean Baptiste Charbonneau.
196. VHSSTO_160812_0814.JPG: The Monroe Doctrine of 1823 Eight years of foreign service led James Monroe to distrust European nations. Fearful that Spain and France might retake Latin America, that Russia might expand from Alaska into Oregon, and that England still held imperial ambitions, he warned those powers against interfering in the Americas. In exchange, the United States pledged to avoid involvement in the political affairs of Europe.
197. VHSSTO_160812_0816.JPG: Last of the Founding Fathers: James Monroe A hero of two wars -- the Revolutionary War and the War of 1812 -- James Monroe also served in government for forty years. He was a senator, governor of Virginia, foreign minister, and secretary of state and of war. Monroe was elected to the presidency twice––the second time unopposed. His presidency became known as the "Era of Good Feeling," when six states were added and Americans prospered.
198. VHSSTO_160812_0820.JPG: Mameluke Sword of Lt. Col. Alexander A. Elder, U.S. Marine Corps, late 20th century All Marine officers carry this sword in recognition of the Corps' first battle on foreign soil, Marines led by Lt. Presley O'Bannon of Fauquier County fought North African pirates in 1805 on the "shores of Tripoli."
199. VHSSTO_160812_0831.JPG: 5 October 1817 Letter from President James Monroe to Secretary of War George Graham on Andrew Jackson's invasion of Florida Even Monroe, a veteran of the wars of the Revolution and 1812, had difficulty controlling General Andrew Jackson, who here "complain[s]" to the president of "a departure from what he understood to be my intention." Monroe had ordered Jackson to intervene between the Seminole Indians and white settlers in Georgia and not to invade Florida. Jackson exceeded his instructions when he overthrew Florida's Spanish government.
200. VHSSTO_160812_0839.JPG: Global Affairs The nation became immersed in global affairs after 1800 when the decades-old conflict between England and France reignited and disrupted American commerce. Two presidents, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, proved ineffective against the French emperor Napoleon and an English nation struggling for its survival. Jefferson did achieve a major accomplishment, the Louisiana Purchase, when Napoleon's plans for a new world empire collapsed.
201. VHSSTO_160812_0842.JPG: The War of 1812 When the English seized American sailors to serve in the British navy, President Jefferson levied a tax on foreign trade -- it had little effect. In 1812, President Madison ill-advisedly declared war with England. In Virginia, the British attacked Norfolk and Hampton, burned the nation's capital, and looted Alexandria. An expedition launched from Tangier Island was halted outside Baltimore; the defense there inspired the composition of "The Star Spangled Banner."
202. VHSSTO_160812_0843.JPG: Dolley Madison Washington DC and Orange County b 1789 / d 1849 Skillful as First Lady -- serving both the widower Thomas Jefferson and her own husband -- Dolley Madison not only led Washington society during four presidential terms but also proved to be a politically savvy hostess who influenced political events from 1801 to 1817. Before British troops burned the White House, she courageously organized slaves and staff to save portraits and silver. To her husband James Madison's silent, shy, and stiff personality, Dolley added friendliness and charm. "Everybody loves Mrs. Madison," declared Henry Clay.
203. VHSSTO_160812_0848.JPG: William Henry Harrison (1773–1841) Ninth President of the United States, 4 March–4 April 1841 Born in Charles City County, Harrison served in the army in the old Northwest Territory (north of the Ohio River) and was appointed governor of the Indiana Territory. He negotiated treaties with multiple tribes of Indians in which they conveyed title to fifty million acres of land. Harrison defeated the Shawnee chief Tecumseh in 1811 at the battle of Tippecanoe and recaptured Detroit from the British during the War of 1812, winning military fame that eventually earned him the presidency.
204. VHSSTO_160812_0850.JPG: Black Hawk (Ma-ka-tai-me-she-kia-kiak), Sauk War Chief Who Confronted Harrison More informationBlack Hawk disputed William Henry Harrison's treaty of 1804 whereby the Sauk and Fox nations ceded to the United States their lands in present-day Illinois. In an effort to regain that lost territory, Black Hawk joined British-supported forces during the War of 1812. In 1828, the Sauk and Fox tribes were removed west of the Mississippi River. From Iowa, Black Hawk led incursions back into the Illinois region. In 1832 one incursion grew into a revolt, the unsuccessful "Black Hawk War."
205. VHSSTO_160812_0857.JPG: 1840 The Tippecanoe Text-Book For the presidential campaign of 1840, the Whigs coined the slogan "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too," which references William Henry Harrison's victory over the Indians in the Northwest Territory in 1811, and his running mate, John Tyler. When Harrison was derided as content to live in a log cabin with a barrel of hard cider, Whigs welcomes the homespun image and anoited him the "Log Cabin and Hard Cider" candidate.
206. VHSSTO_160812_0861.JPG: G.T.T. -- Gone to Texas Virginians played a role in Texas history. In 1822, Stephen Austin of Wythe County led 300 settlers to what was then a Mexican province. In the Texas war for independence (1835-1836), seventeen Virginians died at the Alamo, other Virginians signed a Declaration of Independence, and Sam Houston of Rockbridge County defeated the Mexican president at San Jacinto. In subsequent years, so many Virginians fled their creditors to Texas that the abbreviation "G.T.T." became widely known.
207. VHSSTO_160812_0865.JPG: Mexican general Santa Anna (center) surrenders to a wounded Sam Houston following the battle of San Jacinto. The victory earned Texas its independence.
208. VHSSTO_160812_0868.JPG: Zachary Taylor (1784–1850), Twelfth President of the United States, 1849–1850 Born in Orange County, Virginia, Taylor was the son of a Revolutionary War officer who was granted land in present-day Kentucky, where the family moved. "Old Rough and Ready's" forty-year military career propelled him both to high command in the Mexican War, where he was praised as the American "David" sent against the Mexican "Goliath," and to the presidency. Taylor was a southerner and slaveholder who opposed the expansion of slavery. He died only sixteen months into his presidency, possibly from gastroenteritis (stomach virus [viral infection]). Onetime fur trader and Crow Indian chief James Beckwourth was born in Fredericskburg. The son of a Revolutionary War veteran and his slave, he discovered the best pass through the Sierra Nevada Mountains to California.
209. VHSSTO_160812_0873.JPG: 1848 Portrait of Zachary Taylor by James Reid Lambdin
210. VHSSTO_160812_0879.JPG: Conestoga wagon, about 1830, stenciled by its maker on its back door, "J. B. Kiger/Sperryville, Va.,"1993.48 The Conestoga wagon (developed near Conestoga, Pennsylvania) was designed for hauling freight up and down steep slopes: contents would settle at the middle of its curved bed rather than shift to one end or the other. A lightweight, flat variant carried pioneers from Missouri to the West Coast
211. VHSSTO_160812_0883.JPG: Forced Migration Included in the westward migration were hundreds of thousands of enslaved African-Virginians. In the exhausted tobacco fields of eastern Virginia, slaves could cost more to maintain than they could produce. Slavery did bring prosperity in the Deep South, where cotton could be grown successfully with slave labor. Forty-two slaves -- ranging from six months to forty-seven years old -- are listed in this inventory.
212. VHSSTO_160812_0894.JPG: Conestoga wagon, about 1830, stenciled by its maker on its back door, "J. B. Kiger/Sperryville, Va.,"1993.48 The Conestoga wason was the "moving van" of the early nineteenth century. The Conestoga wagon (developed near Conestoga, Pennsylvania) was designed for hauling freight up and down steep slopes: contents would settle at the middle of its curved bed rather than shift to one end or the other. A lightweight, flat variant carried pioneers from Missouri to the West Coast
213. VHSSTO_160812_0898.JPG: Map of Ross County, Ohio, 19th century Part of Virginia's legacy to the West was its land policy. On acquiring a grant, a Virginian could stake out a parcel of land in any shape that would encompass the best terrain. In this manner, Ross County, Ohio, was settled. This was "the Virginia Military District," land west of the Scioto River that had been set aside to pay Revolutionary War veterans. Land east of the river was laid out as a grid in neat rectangles.
214. VHSSTO_160812_0903.JPG: Where Did They Go? Pioneers eventually pushed to the farthest reaches of "the West." Initially, emigrants were lured to Tennessee along Valley of Virginia roads. Kentucky and Illinois––first as Virginia counties and later as states––also beckoned, along with Indiana and Missouri. Ohio attracted the most Virginians. Thousands of slaves were taken to Mississippi and Alabama. Virginians later emigrated to Texas and California.
215. VHSSTO_160812_0905.JPG: 1855 "Churches, Blacksmith Shop, and College: A View of Salem in Virginia" by Edward Beyer Farmers in the Valley and Piedmont produced an abundance of corn and wheat, enabling Virginia to remain the leading agricultural state in the South.
216. VHSSTO_160812_0909.JPG: Industrial and Commercial Opportunity in Richmond A French visitor in 1837 observed that Richmond "aspires to be a metropolis... by the great works which it is executing... canals, railroads, water-works, huge mills, workshops, for which the fall in the river affords an almost unlimited motive power." The agrarian lifestyle, however, was so fundamental in the region that many from old Virginia families preferred to relocate rather than change vocation.
217. VHSSTO_160812_0915.JPG: Agricultural Failure in Eastern Virginia Soil exhaustion had transformed the landscape east of the Blue Ridge Mountains into wasted fields and what one agriculturist called the "eyesores" of ruined farms. Artists and writers saw a melancholy beauty in the ruins and worn land. Practical farmers, however, saw instead good reason to pack up and head west. By 1800, tobacco production had exhausted the soil of eastern Virginia, causing some to compare its decay to that of the Dismal Swamp.
218. VHSSTO_160812_0921.JPG: The Westward Movement "[N]one has contributed more to the peopling of the new states, than Virginia." -- Benjamin Watkins Leigh, 1829 As early as the 1600s, Virginians in pursuit of land and opportunity began to push settlement westward. Later, Revolutionary War veterans were rewarded with land grant in the near West. Soil exhaustion in eastern Virginia after 1800 spurred massive relocation. By 1861, one million Virginians, slaves included, had left. The exodus caused Virginia to slip politically and economically, but westward-bound Virginians spread their culture across America.
219. VHSSTO_160812_0928.JPG: 1763 to 1825 British taxation -- introduced to pay for a British military presence in America -- was unexpected by the Virginia gentry and resented. Those Americans began to view British policy as a plot against their liberty. They played leading roles in the Continental Congresses that debated independence, in the fighting of the American Revolution, and in the creation of a new government. Virginia also provided four of the new nation's first five presidents. Virginia leaders advocated equality for all, but they never considered extending it to women and African Americans.
220. VHSSTO_160812_0931.JPG: 1800 After the revolution, Virginians were instrumental in expanding the territory of the new United States, preparing for its defense, and establishing commercial ties in a global economy.
221. VHSSTO_160812_0938.JPG: 1820 The political stature of Virginia declined on the national stage when no successors of equal ability replaced the Founding Fathers. At the same time, exhausted soil brought agricultural failures. To some, the ruins at Jamestown seemed symbolic of a general decline.
222. VHSSTO_160812_0945.JPG: The Virginia Constitutional Convention of 1829-1830, painted by George Catlin, 1957.39 The convention met to address demands by western Virginians for equal representation in the state legislature––where age-old arguments for either low taxation or increased spending for internal improvements and education would be debated. Easterners, who needed neither roads nor schools and who feared a threat to their perpetuation of slavery, refused the demands. 1829-1830 The Virginia Constitutional Convention of 1829-30, painted by George Catlin John Marshall sits directly behind James Madison, who addresses the chairman, James Monroe. The heads of all attendees are accurate life portraits, their bodies are not.
223. VHSSTO_160812_0949.JPG: The Virginia Constitutional Convention The 1829 convention met to address demands by western Virginians for equal representation in that state legislature -- where age-old arguments for either low taxation or increased spending for internal improvements and education would be debated. Easterners, who needed neither roads nor schools and who feared a threat to their perpetuation of slavery, refused the demands. James Monroe, who presided, unsuccessfully advocated emancipation.
224. VHSSTO_160812_0954.JPG: The Issue of Slavery Virginia's 550,000 slaves constituted one third of the state's population in 1860. In some eastern counties, slaves were the majority. In the western counties, rugged terrain made slavery impractical. In 1829, citizens there demanded representation in a government controlled by easterners with different interests. In 1861, they chose to form West Virginia rather than join the Confederacy.
225. VHSSTO_160812_0958.JPG: Agricultural Decline In 1830, John Randolph complained that Virginia's landscape was "worn out." Overproduction of tobacco had exhausted the soil of eastern and central Virginia. Some blamed farmers for failing to rotate crops, rest fields, and fertilize. Others faulted the absence of a system to transport and market crops. To many, the slave force was unproductive, and import tariffs benefited the northern factory owner at the expense of southern farmers.
226. VHSSTO_160812_0961.JPG: Dueling pistols owned by John Randolph of Roanoke, about 1820 John Randolph may have used these pistols in his duel with Henry Clay.
227. VHSSTO_160812_0967.JPG: John Randolph of Roanoke born Hopewell; resided Charlotte County b 2 June 1773 / d 24 May 1833 A slight man made high-voiced by illness, Randolph was eccentric and feared in Congress. There -- wearing riding boots with whip in hand -- he would browbeat opponents with his brilliant wit. Randolph advocated restricting the role of the federal government and promoting the agrarian lifestyle, which he pursued at "Roanoke," his own slave-sustained plantation in Southside Virginia. Acquaintances said this image presented "an accurate and by no means caricatured or exaggerated representation of Randolph's singular personal appearance."
228. VHSSTO_160812_0970.JPG: The fuel between John Randolph and Henry Clay, 1826, Arlington, Virginia
229. VHSSTO_160812_0972.JPG: John Randolph ridiculed the political alliance between the northerner John Quincy Adams and southern Senator Henry Clay that gave Adams the presidency. He called Clay "corrupt... like a rotten mackerel.. that shined and stunk." Rather than continue to berate one another with words, they turned to guns. Valuing honor more than life, Clay summoned Randolph to a duel. Both men survived.
230. VHSSTO_160812_0975.JPG: Dueling pistols owned by John Randolph of Roanoke, about 1820 John Randolph may have used these pistols in his duel with Henry Clay.
231. VHSSTO_160812_0979.JPG: Political Decline The presidencies of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, and James Monroe were over. In the rising generation of Virginians, only John Randolph possessed exceptional talent, but he was feared, not admired. The state had lost power in Congress because of population shifts. " What has become of our political rank and eminence in the Union?" worried Benjamin Watkins Leigh. "Virginia has declined and is declining."
232. VHSSTO_160812_0981.JPG: John Tyler (1790–1862) of Charles City County, Tenth President of the United States and the last Virginia-born President to Remain in the Commonwealth. John Tyler endorsed states' rights, limited federal government, and the virtue of agrarian life. He first served as a Virginia legislator and governor, a U.S. representative and senator, and as vice president. As president, Tyler provoked a war with Mexico and thereby acquired Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. In 1861, he opposed secession but then served in the Confederate government.
233. VHSSTO_160812_0985.JPG: John Tyler's death mask, 1862, 1976.10 The mask reputedly was broken by Union soldiers during the Civil War.
234. VHSSTO_160812_0991.JPG: Slave whipping post from the "Negro Jail at Portsmouth," about 1855-1865, 1990.114 Union soldier Charles Miller of the 148th New York Volunteers seized this whipping post "to be preserved as a relic of barbarism." It is the only surviving Virginia example.
235. VHSSTO_160812_0999.JPG: 1840 New industries were emerging in Virginia's cities. Richmond, Norfolk, Petersburg, Fredericksburg, Lynchburg, and Wheeling seemed poised for further growth . By the late 1850s, Virginia could claim 4,841 manufacturing establishments, making it fifth among the states in this category -- though far behind the more progressive North.
236. VHSSTO_160812_1005.JPG: The Rise of Commerce and Industry The view from Gamble's Hill provides evidence of the state's expansion of commerce and industry. Canals and railroads connected farmers, rural flour mills, iron furnaces, and coal mines to eastern production centers and international markets. Richmond's merchants exported tobacco; its flour-milling firms dominated trade with South America; and the Tredegar ironworks produced railroad iron and ordnance for a national market.
237. VHSSTO_160812_1009.JPG: The James River and Kanawha Canal Conceived by George Washington, the canal eventually stretched 197 miles westward to the town of Buchanan. It was the first major transportation artery for industry and carried water to power mills. Canal boats carried grain, hides, tobacco, wood, iron, and coal from the interior to Richmond where finished goods could be shipped worldwide. Only at mid-century was it eclipsed by the railroads.
238. VHSSTO_160812_1011.JPG: about 1850 Strap iron from railroad rail In the 1830s, most railroad track was made of wood with thin layers of flat strap-iron attached to the tops. These were eventually replaced with iron rails.
239. VHSSTO_160812_1015.JPG: Roster of workers for the Richmond, Fredericksburg, and Potomac Railroad Company, 1839, Mss3 R4152 a Not only did African American workers perform the most grueling labor for the railroads, but they also were paid the lowest wages.
240. VHSSTO_160812_1022.JPG: Advent of the Railroads Beginning in the 1830s, the new technology of wood-burning locomotives and iron rails stimulated cities along Virginia's fall line to build railroad connections to the interior, across difficult terrain. These lines transported farm products and natural resources to ports along the fall line. Local stockholders constructed competing rail lines, but it was not until after the Civil War that these small companies were united into profitable long-distance networks.
241. VHSSTO_160812_1024.JPG: The World's Largest Tobacco Production Center In 1730, a "Warehouse Act" designated the falls of the James River a center of tobacco trade. A century later, tobacco remained the staple crop, and the reach of canals and railroads encouraged its production in the Piedmont and its export beyond England to Europe and Australia. By the 1840s, with fifty tobacco factories, Richmond had become the world's largest tobacco production center.
242. VHSSTO_160812_1026.JPG: about 1860 Chewing tobacco made by the Dunlop Tobacco Company, Petersburg
243. VHSSTO_160812_1029.JPG: before 1822 Snuff box made form a ram's horn, with silver cover, owned by Nathaniel Fox
244. VHSSTO_160812_1033.JPG: Box for chewing tobacco produced by Buckner & Jones, Lynchburg, 1852, 2001.6
245. VHSSTO_160812_1040.JPG: The Gallego Mills The Gallego Mills gained international reputation for their superior flour. About 1798, Joseph Gallego (1758–1818) established the mills. In 1834, his successors built a mill complex at the James River Canal's turning basin that used basin water for power. By 1849, a nine-story mill was in operation with thirty-one pairs of grinding stones and six water wheels. In 1860, a twelve-story mill was built -- the largest in the world. All burned in the 1865 evacuation fire.
246. VHSSTO_160812_1043.JPG: Tredegar Iron Works An iron industry developed in Virginia with the advent of the railroad and the demand for locomotive engines, tenders, railroad cars, and track. Workers were brought to Richmond in 1837 from the famous iron works at Tredegar, Wales, to take advantage of the boom, a water source, and active coalfields. By 1860, this twenty-two-acre operation made Richmond the third largest iron manufacturer in the nation.
247. VHSSTO_160812_1055.JPG: Anthony Burns d 31 May 1834 / d 17 July 1862 After escaping slavery in Stafford County, Buns settled in Boston. In 1854 he was tracked down by Charles Suttle, who claimed his return under the Fugitive Slave Law. The trial captured national attention, and Burns was shipped back to Virginia. Abolitionists later purchased his freedom. The government proved it could enforce the Fugitive Slave Law but not without controversy.
248. VHSSTO_160812_1058.JPG: Control The management of an enslaved workforce was a frequent topic of debate among slaveowners. Over time an elaborate system of controls was developed that included the legal system, religion, incentives, rewards, physical punishment, and intimidation to keep enslaved people working. None were completely successful.
249. VHSSTO_160812_1061.JPG: Living in Fear Although slaveowners asserted that their workforce was loyal, they also lived in constant fear of a revolt. White southerners prohibited enslaved African Americans from learning to read, restricted their movement, prevented them from meeting in groups, and publicly punished runaways. Slave codes also punished white Virginians who assisted blacks in violating the codes or who emancipated their slaves. "We have the wolf by the ear, and we can neither hold him, nor safely let him go. Justice is one scale and self-preservation in the other." -- Jefferson Jefferson, 1820
250. VHSSTO_160812_1064.JPG: The Richmond Slave Trade After an 1808 act of Congress abolished the international slave trade, a domestic trade flourished. Richmond became the largest slave-trading center in the Upper South, and the slave trade was Virginia's largest industry. It accounted for the sale of as many as two million people from Richmond to the Deep South, where the cotton industry provided a market for enslaved labor.
251. VHSSTO_160812_1067.JPG: The Slave Auction Prices of slaves varied widely over time. They rose to a high of about $1,250 during the cotton boom of the late 1830s, fell to below half that level in the 1840s, and rose to about $1,450 in the late 1850s. Males were valued 10 to 20 percent more than females; at age ten, children's prices were about half that of a prime male field hand. Images of slave auctions show the barbarity of a practice where human beings were treated as if they were farm animals or merchandise.
252. VHSSTO_160812_1070.JPG: Historians have determined that more than half the slaves sold by traders were forcibly separated either from a spouse or from one or both of their parents.
253. VHSSTO_160812_1074.JPG: The Escalating Tensions Over Slavery American from 1848 to 1861 has been compared to a runaway train. New territories acquired following the Mexican War intensified the national debate over slavery. The Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 attempted to turn northerners into slave catchers. The Kansas-Nebraska Act and the Dred Scott case repealed bans on slavery in the territories and ruled such bans unconstitutional. All of this increased sectional tensions.
254. VHSSTO_160812_1079.JPG: about 1823 Walking stick, carved with an image of an enslaved African American man made for Brooke & Hubbard auctioneers, Richmond, Virginia
255. VHSSTO_160812_1084.JPG: 19th hcentury Slave collar
256. VHSSTO_160812_1089.JPG: after about 1830 Pewter slave pass for Aunt Jemima Johnston of Nicholas Plantation, Warrenton
257. VHSSTO_160812_1091.JPG: about 1830-1865 Whipping Strap used at the whipping post in Gloucester Court House
258. VHSSTO_160812_1093.JPG: A Vibrant Culture Through their families, religion, folklore, and music, as well as more direct forms of resistance, African Americans resisted the debilitating effects of slavery and created a vital culture supportive of human dignity. At the same time, slaves exerted a profound influence on all aspects of American culture. Language, music, cuisine, and architecture in the United States are all heavily influenced by African traditions and are part of a uniquely American culture.
259. VHSSTO_160812_1096.JPG: A Blending of Palates African Americans adapted Indian, European, and African food traditions -- such as deep-fat frying, gumbo, and fricassee -- to feed their own families as well as those of white slaveowners. Pork and corn were the primary rations issued to slaves, but they were supplemented by plants and animals grown or raised or gathered from nearby rivers and fields. Language, cuisine, music, and architecture in the United States are all heavily influenced by African traditions and are part of a uniquely American culture.
260. VHSSTO_160812_1099.JPG: Banjo, about 1850-1875 The banjo is a uniquely American musical instrument with African origins. The banjo is an adaptation of several West African instruments, featuring a skin head and a hollow body. Early American banjos were constructed with gourd bodies and four gut or vine strings. The addition of a wooden rim and a fifth string in the mid-nineteenth century altered the way the banjo was played and the sound it made -- familiar today in bluegrass and country music.
261. VHSSTO_160812_1103.JPG: Music and Food Slave music merged European practices with intricate rhythm patterns, off-key notes, foot patting, and a strong rhythmic drive. Music was incorporated into religious ceremonies as shouts and "sorrow songs;" "field hollers" and work songs helped coordinate group tasks; and satirical songs were a form of passive resistance that commented on the injustices of the slave system.
262. VHSSTO_160812_1107.JPG: Slave Religion As late as 1800, most slaves retained African traditions of music, dance, and belief in a supreme creator. Baptist and Methodist ministers preached hope and redemption to enslaved people who fashioned Christian gospels into a communal music of spirituals about salvation, deliverance, and resistance. Religious expression helped slaves maintain a sense of hope and ultimate salvation.
263. VHSSTO_160812_1110.JPG: The Colonization Movement Alarmed by the growing free black population, a number of Virginians -- including James Monroe and John Randolph of Roanoke -- joined antislavery northerners in establishing the American Colonization Society. The society promoted the "repatriation" of former slaves to Africa and established the country of Liberia. About 15,000 blacks emigrated and patterned their society after the American South.
264. VHSSTO_160812_1114.JPG: Slave Life on the Plantation The majority of enslaved men, women, and children provided agricultural labor. Trained craftsmen provided such services as blacksmithing and carpentry, while a smaller group of men and women served the needs of the planter's family. On Sundays, slaves tended to their own gardens and livestock provided by the owners, practiced religion, and engaged with family and friends.
265. VHSSTO_160812_1116.JPG: Elizabeth Keckley b February 1818 / d May 1907 Born in Dinwiddie County to plantation owner Armistead Burwell and his slave Agnes, Keckley purchased her freedom in 1855 and supported herself as a seamstress. In Washington, Mary Todd Lincoln hired Keckley as her dressmaker, and she soon became Lincoln's personal companion. Their friendship ended with the publication in 1869 of Keckley's memoir, which Mrs. Lincoln felt betrayed her.
266. VHSSTO_160812_1120.JPG: Tom Molineaux, an enslaved Virginian, boxed other slaves to entertain plantation owners. On winning one match, he was granted his freedom. He moved to England and continued boxing.
267. VHSSTO_160812_1123.JPG: 18 July 1829 A letter from a slaveowner was necessary to permit enslaved African Americans to be baptized at Upper Goose Creek Church in Fauquier County.
268. VHSSTO_160812_1128.JPG: Folklore Enslaved African Americans continued a rich tradition of African parables, proverbs, and legends. Through folklore, they maintained a sense of identity and taught valuable lessons to their children. The central figures were cunning tricksters, often represented as tortoises, spiders, or rabbits, who defeated more powerful enemies through wit and guile, not power and authority.
269. VHSSTO_160812_1131.JPG: Challenges of a New Century
270. VHSSTO_160812_1134.JPG: 1825 to 1861 The decades following the presidency of Virginian James Monroe (1817-1825) saw populations shift, the economy expand, and attitudes about slavery harden. More and more families migrated from the soil-depleted Tidewater and Piedmont, while new and diverse peoples in the Valley prospered at farming. The beginnings of the Industrial Revolution encouraged the growth of industry, urban centers, and "internal improvements" (transportation by road, rail, and canal). Those "improvements" -- funded by taxes -- became a subject of political debate. Slavery was as passionately attacked by abolitionists as it was defended by proponents.
271. VHSSTO_160812_1147.JPG: Resistance to Slavery Denied their unalienable rights of liberty and the pursuit of happiness, enslaved Americans were trapped in a cruel and unacceptable lifestyle. Some enslaved Virginians instigated organized, armed rebellion or attempted escape, even though success was unlikely and punishments included execution and disfigurement. Most engaged in day-to-day resistance -- breaking equipment, stealing foodstuffs, slowing the work-pace. The most effective resistance was the formation of a distinct culture that perpetuated African American traditions of music, storytelling, and cuisine, and was bolstered by strong religious beliefs.
272. VHSSTO_160812_1154.JPG: Henry "Box" Brown Philadelphia b 1816 / Escaped: March 1849 In one of the most remarkable escapes on the Underground Railroad, Henry Brown shipped himself as freight, enclosed in a wooden crate, from Richmond to Philadelphia. Twenty hours later, with the box upside down much of the trip, it was opened at the Pennsylvania Anti-Slavery Society. After his deliverance, Brown lectured on the evils of slavery and published an autobiography. Philadelphia abolitionists are shown opening the crate in which enslaved Henry Brown had himself shipped from Richmond to freedom in Pennsylvania.
273. VHSSTO_160812_1162.JPG: Thomas Moran's painting of The Slave Hunt [Dismal Swamp, Virginia], 1864, 2000.161
274. VHSSTO_160812_1167.JPG: Thomas Moran's painting: The Slave Hunt [Dismal Swamp], 1864 Virginia's famed Dismal Swamp became associated with fugitive slaves because some actually took refuge there. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote a poem in 1855 entitled "The Slave in the Dismal Swamp," and in 1856 Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote the novel, Dred: A Tale of the Dismal Swamp. Both tell of runaways who, even out of bondage, are deprived of their freedom because the landscaped itself entraps them.
275. VHSSTO_160812_1171.JPG: Resistance to Slavery Travelers to Virginia were appalled by the slavery they saw practiced there. In 1842, the English novelist Charles Dickens wrote of the "gloom and dejection" and "ruin and decay" that he attributed to "this horrible institution." Inevitably, the intolerable abuses caused a number to commit suicide. A few initiated rebellion––the ultimate crisis imagined by the slaveowner.
276. VHSSTO_160812_1175.JPG: Dears of slave rebellion in Virginia were heightened in 1791 by news of a successful slave revolution in Saint-Dominique (Haiti).
277. VHSSTO_160812_1178.JPG: Gabriel's Rebellion, 1800 Gabriel was a literate enslaved blacksmith hired out to work in Richmond by his owner, Thomas Prosser of Henrico County. With some freedom of movement, access to other slaves, and information about uprisings elsewhere, Gabriel planned a slave rebellion in central Virginia. Betrayed by two fellow slaves, Gabriel and twenty-five of his followers were hanged.
278. VHSSTO_160812_1182.JPG: The Nat Turner Revolt, 1831 The danger of a slave uprising seemed remote to most whites until this incident. In Southampton County, Nat Turner led about sixty fellow slaves in a two-day uprising that left sixty whites dead. The reaction to the event by white southerners can be seen in broadsides, narratives, and private letters. Because Turner's former master was said to be a fair man, every slaveholder in Virginia suddenly felt threatened.
279. VHSSTO_160812_1186.JPG: John Brown's Pike, 1859 John Brown planned to arm slaves with pikes when he led them in revolt. For the slave uprising that he hoped to initiate at Harpers Ferry, John Brown placed an order in Connecticut for the manufacture of 1,000 pikes to be used by men he assumed would be untrained in the loading and firing of muskets. John Brown's pikes later became a symbol of the horrors that his failed insurrection might have caused.
280. VHSSTO_160812_1190.JPG: John Brown's Pike, 1859 John Brown planned to arm slaves with pikes when he led them in revolt.
281. VHSSTO_160812_1194.JPG: The Abolition Movement in Virginia A society for promoting abolition was organized by 1790, and publications appeared as early as St. George Tucker's Dissertation of 1796. The self-criticism and efforts for abolition ended, however, after Nat Turner's rebellion of 1831. From that point forward, the majority of white Virginians approved of the practice, denied its evils, and defended it [as a "positive good."]
282. VHSSTO_160812_1196.JPG: Manumission in Virginia In 1782, the General Assembly allowed slaveowners to free their slaves. Some did. Many of their manumission documents are written with condemnation of "the injustice and criminality" of slavery: "Being fully persuaded that freedom is the Natural Right of all Mankind and that it is my duty to do unto others as I would desire to be done by in the like situation, I hereby Emancipate and set free the said Slave..."
283. VHSSTO_160812_1199.JPG: 1843 Broadside announcing the public sale of slaves
284. VHSSTO_160812_1205.JPG: Bowie knife taken from John Brown at Harper's Ferry by Lt. J. E. B. Stuart of the U.S. Cavalry, 1983.31
285. VHSSTO_160812_1209.JPG: John Brown's Raid, 1859 Accompanied by eighteen whites and five African Americans, abolitionist John Brown seized the U.S. arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. He intended to take rifles stored there, escape into the mountains, and start a slave revolt. Five raiders escaped, ten were killed, and nine -- including Brown -- were captured and executed. Sectionalist tension heightened as southerners feared additional violence.
286. VHSSTO_160812_1222.JPG: 1860 "Virginia has severed her connections with the Northern hive of abolitionists and takes her stand as a sovereign and independent state... The dies is thus cast and her fortune is in the hands of the God of Battle." -- John Tyler, 17 April 1861
287. VHSSTO_160812_1229.JPG: Why Did the Civil War Happen? In 1860, newly elected President Abraham Lincoln pledged to ban slavery in the territories, which would weaken the power of slaveholding states in Congress. Seven Deep South states seceded. After Confederates in Charleston, South Carolina, fired upon a US Army garrison in Fort Sumter, Lincoln called o the loyal states for militia to suppress the rebellion. Virginia chose instead to secede.
288. VHSSTO_160812_1234.JPG: Presentation sword awarded to George Henry Thomas for gallantry in the Seminole and Mexican wars, 1900.1.A-B. In 1861, Thomas was one of 50,000 Virginians who decided to remain in the U.S. Army, where he rose to the rank of major general.
289. VHSSTO_160812_1238.JPG: 1861 Virginia secession cockade
290. VHSSTO_160812_1239.JPG: Seceded before Ft. Sumter Seceded after Ft. Sumter Slave states that did not secede Union states US Territories The Upper South -- Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas -- seceded after Lincoln called for troops to help put down the Confederate rebellion.
291. VHSSTO_160812_1243.JPG: Virginia Military Institute professor Thomas Jonathan Jackson joined the Confederate army in 1861 and ultimately became one of its most able generals.
292. VHSSTO_160812_1246.JPG: about 1850 Thomas Jonathan Jackson's pocket watch Jackson routinely stared at this watch while observing his troops. Careful not to exhaust them during forced marches, he ordered ten-minutes rest each hour.
293. VHSSTO_160812_1253.JPG: before 1860 Books from Lt. Gen. Thomas Jonathan Jackson's personal library Jackson was both a devout Presbyterian and a professional solder. As a result, religious and military texts are common in his library.
294. VHSSTO_160812_1261.JPG: Virginia's Importance After Virginia seceded, the Confederate government moved its capital to Richmond, the South's second largest city. As the most populous of the slaveholding states, Virginia was vital to the Confederacy as a source of military strength and because it was home to essential industry, mining, and food production. Both armies soon focused on capturing or defending Richmond. [From http://www.civil-war.net/pages/1860_census.html -- Virginia's population was 1.6 million, including 490,000 slaves. Slaves were 31% of of the population and 26% of families owned slaves. In Mississippi and South Carolina, slaves outnumbered whites.]
295. VHSSTO_160812_1263.JPG: Why Is There a West Virginia? As early as 1829, some western Virginians hoped to secede from Virginia. They were underrepresented in Virginia's legislature, overtaxed, and shortchanged in state spending. In many counties, the rugged terrain made slavery impractical. Following Virginia's secession, leaders in many of the western counties organized to remain in the Union. In 1863, West Virginia became a state.
296. VHSSTO_160812_1265.JPG: 1862 Imprint of the Great Seal of the Confederacy The image of George Washington on horseback -- a rendering of the statue on the grounds of Richmond's capitol -- linked the Confederacy to Virginia's colonial past.
297. VHSSTO_160812_1270.JPG: Choosing Sides In 1861, thousands of white men rushed to answer the call to arms -- to preserve the Union or to repel northern invaders. Two years later, cash incentives and the draft were required to refill the ranks, and the Union army opened enlistment to African Americans hoping to strike a blow against slavery. Ultimately, 3,000,000 men fought to decide the future of the United States.
298. VHSSTO_160812_1273.JPG: Communications Revolution Two newly popular devices -- the telegraph and the illustrated newspaper -- revolutionized the ways that wars were fought and reported. Developed in the 1830s, the electric telegraph allowed distant military commanders to coordinate more effectively and newspaper reporters to send news to the home front instantaneously. With this expanding media coverage, the military took on the added responsibility of managing information as well as their armies. New technologies allowed drawings of battles in progress and photographs of their aftermath to be reproduced in newspapers as engravings. "The army signal-telegraph has been so far perfected that in a few hours quite a large force can be in constant connection with head-quarters. This, while a battle is progressing, is a great convenience." -- Alfred Waud, "Army Telegram," Harper's Weekly, 24 January 1863
299. VHSSTO_160812_1276.JPG: Reporting the War
300. VHSSTO_160812_1280.JPG: Images of War: Photography was only two decades old in 1861. Taking a photograph was a slow process, and battlefields were too chaotic and dangerous for photographers. Wartime photographs, therefore, consisted of individual and group portraits, camp scenes, and the grisly aftermath of battle. Artists traveling with the armies were better able to provide depictions of actual battle. Both drawings and photographs fed a home front population hungry for information.
301. VHSSTO_160812_1283.JPG: Wartime Newspapers The press served as a vital, if often flawed, source of information on the conflict. In 1861, there were 120 newspapers being published in Virginia, but after two years of war, only seventeen remained, and by mid-1864, shortages and Union occupation left only a handful still operating. Most newspapers printed only text, but Harper's Weekly and Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper in the North and the Southern Illustrated News in the South offered text accompanied by images. The identities of more than 25 percent of battlefield casualties were unknown. Occasional reports (in newspapers or posted as broadsides) with names of the killed and wounded were shocking but at least provided closure.
302. VHSSTO_160812_1290.JPG: Wartime Photography The American Civil War was the first major conflict to be extensively photographed. Civilians for the first time could view the shockingly realistic carnage of battlefields. Photography was only two decades old in 1861. The photographer carried heavy equipment by wagon, which served as his darkroom where he processed cumbersome light-sensitive images on glass. Taking a photograph was a slow process, and battlefields were too chaotic and dangerous for photographers. Wartime photographs, therefore, consisted of individual and group portraits, camp scenes, and the grisly aftermath of battle. Artists traveling with the armies were better able to provide depictions of actual battle. Both drawings and photographs fed a home front population hungry for information. Urban photographers produced inexpensive portraits carried by soldiers in the field and kept by loved ones at home.
303. VHSSTO_160812_1291.JPG: The Bohemian Brigade Wartime artists and reporters, known collectively as the Bohemian Brigade, used the telegraph to send stories to their editors; this allowed for the speedy transfer of news from the front. Sketches, however, had to be sent by courier. Because of limited censorship, newspaper accounts were republished in enemy papers and frequently used as sources of information by military commanders.
304. VHSSTO_160812_1295.JPG: Window from Libby Prison, about 1861, 1990.11
305. VHSSTO_160812_1303.JPG: 1861 Key to Libby Prison
306. VHSSTO_160812_1304.JPG: Battlefield Communication
307. VHSSTO_160812_1309.JPG: Communicating on the Battlefield Communication is important to any group effort. At the squad and company level, officers communicated with their troops by shouting commands. The bugle, fife, and drum were used to communicate across regiments and brigades, but coordinating the movement of armies required sending messages over greater distances with flags, torches, and the telegraph.
308. VHSSTO_160812_1312.JPG: From Reveille to Taps: In camp life, drum, and bugle calls signaled when it was time to wake up, eat, drill, or sleep. On the battlefield, the sound of these instruments carried farther than shouted commands and told soldiers when to advance or retreat. In time, bugles proved easier to carry and more effective to hear over the din of battle.
309. VHSSTO_160812_1315.JPG: Encrypted Messages Because enemy observers could easily see signals sent by flag, both armies used coded messages. One system of ciphering and deciphering -- originally developed in the fifteenth century -- used two concentric circular plates, one mounted on top of the other. By aligning the alphabets inscribed along the edges of each plate a substitution code was created.
310. VHSSTO_160812_1318.JPG: Robert K. Sneden, 40th New York Infantry Sneden served with the Army of the Potomac in Virginia during the Peninsula Campaign, the Seven Days Battles, and as a topographical engineer in Washington DC. In November 1863, he was captured and spent the thirteen months as a prisoner of war. Because photography could not capture motion, artwork like Sneden's is instrumental to our understanding of the war.
311. VHSSTO_160812_1322.JPG: In April 1862, Professor Lowe ascended in a reconnaissance balloon near Yorktown. Although it offered a good view of the Confederates, it also drew their artillery fire.
312. VHSSTO_160812_1324.JPG: A Communications Revolution By means of electrical signals carried by wire, the telegraph allowed instantaneous communication by combining dots and dashes to represent letters. With it, military commanders could coordinate more effectively, and reporters could send news from the battlefield instantaneously. With this expanding media coverage, the military took on the added responsibility of managing information as well as their armies.
313. VHSSTO_160812_1327.JPG: about 1865 Wet-Plate Camera In 1861, the newest camera technology captured images on chemically coated pieces of glass. Removing the lens cap would expose the glass plate to light.
314. VHSSTO_160812_1333.JPG: about 1860 Telegraph Register and Relay To extend the range of the telegraph, electromagnetic relays were used to amplify the signals. Registers recorded the messages on paper tape.
315. VHSSTO_160812_1337.JPG: about 1860 Telegraph Register and Relay To extend the range of the telegraph, electromagnetic relays were used to amplify the signals. Registers recorded the messages on paper tape.
316. VHSSTO_160812_1343.JPG: 1862 Map of the position of the Union Army, April 5 and 6, 1862 Union mapmaker Robert Knox Sneden of the 40th New York Infantry was one of many cartographers who created maps for use by the armies.
317. VHSSTO_160812_1348.JPG: Spies
318. VHSSTO_160812_1352.JPG: Spies Without a Central Intelligence Agency, both sides used a variety of spies to gather information. The Confederate Signal Corps established a covert agency known as the Secret Service Bureau. Union generals often set up their own intelligence gathering networks which frequently included enslaved and free blacks. In 1863, the Union army created the Bureau of Military Information to oversee these efforts.
319. VHSSTO_160812_1355.JPG: Secret Agents in Hoop Skirts Hundreds of Virginia women -- Unionists and Confederates -- risked their lives by spying during the war. Women were excellent nineteenth-century spies because they were considered non-threatening by soldiers who did not expect them to be involved in such dangerous work. As armies moved into their neighborhoods, women were in the best position to gather information about enemy numbers and nearby fortifications.
320. VHSSTO_160812_1359.JPG: "Rat Hell" In 1854, Luther Libby rented a three-building complex along the James River to sell shipping supplies and groceries. In March 1862, his warehouses were converted to house prisoners of war. More than 125,000 Union soldiers passed through its doors by March 1864, when shortages and concerns about security in Richmond led to the transfer of most prisoners to Georgia.
321. VHSSTO_160812_1362.JPG: Life Inside Libby Exposed to the elements, prisoners often went without furniture, blankets, and eating utensils. Throughout the war, they were plagued by overcrowding, disease, and hunger. By the winter of 1863, when the inmate population rose to 1,000, hunger and disease increased. Prisoners were supposed to receive the same rations as Confederate soldiers, but inflation and food shortages made that impossible. Escape! Using chisels and a wooden spittoon, a small group of officers dug a nearly sixty-foot-long tunnel to escape Libby Prison. The men fought against sickening air, cold, and darkness. Rats made tunneling especially harrowing, as they crawled over the prisoners in the pitch dark. On February 9, 1864, 109 men passed through the tunnel to freedom -- fifty-nine escaped, two drowned, and forty-eight were captured.
322. VHSSTO_160812_1368.JPG: The first year of the Civil War was a medical disaster as personnel assigned to each regiment were ill prepared and overwhelmed. By 1865, 3,200 Confederate and 12,000 Union surgeons developed knowledge and skills that not only reduced death from disease and wounds, but also implemented a system of battlefield care and evacuation that remained in effect for the next century.
323. VHSSTO_160812_1373.JPG: James Edward Hanger Hanger had been a Confederate soldier for one day when a cannon ball tore apart his leg at the battle of Philippi, (West) Virginia in June 1861. Although his life was saved by federal surgeons, his leg could not be, and he became the war's first amputee. During his recovery, Hanger designed and manufactured an improved prosthetic leg with a hinged knee and foot. Other amputees soon demanded the realistic "Hanger limb."
324. VHSSTO_160812_1379.JPG: Amputation TOols
325. VHSSTO_160812_1383.JPG: Chimborazo Hospital consisted of 150 buildings on forty acres and had capacity for 3,000 patients. More than 76,000 were processed there during the war.
326. VHSSTO_160812_1386.JPG: Sally Louisa Thompkins b 9 November 1833 / d 2 July 1916 When Confederate authorities closed Richmond's private hospitals, Tompkins was awarded a captain's commission -- the only one granted to a woman -- so that her twenty-two-bed hospital could remain open and draw from government food and medical supplies. By the end of the war, 1,334 Confederate soldiers passed through its doors. Tompkins's insistence on cleanliness led to fewer than seventy-five deaths.
327. VHSSTO_160812_1390.JPG: Shattered Bones, 1863-1864 Civil War projectiles caused traumatic damage to flesh and bone. A soft, conical, hollow-based Minie ball flattened and deformed on impact. It did not simply break bones and pierce tissue, it shattered and shredded them. If the ragged, tumbling bullet had enough force to cleave completely through the body it tore out an exit wound several times the size of the entrance wound.
328. VHSSTO_160812_1402.JPG: Civil War Medicine
329. VHSSTO_160812_1406.JPG: Improvements in Battlefield Medicine Despite initial setbacks, Civil War surgeons developed a system of aid stations, field hospitals, and general hospitals to manage casualties -- a system still used today. They also learned the importance of immediately treating wounds and that major operations were best carried out in the first twenty-four hours. Although little about the cause of disease was understood, surgeons surmised that clean environments would prevent infection.
330. VHSSTO_160812_1409.JPG: 1861 to 1876 Civil War and Reconstruction
331. VHSSTO_160812_1412.JPG: 1861 to 1876: If Virginians were instrumental in creating the Union in 1776, they were also pivotal in breaking it apart eighty-five years later. Most Virginians rejected secession until they were called upon to provide troops for invading the other southern slave states. The far northwestern counties refused to secede and instead formed West Virginia. Virginia became the bloodiest battleground of the war. At its conclusion, slavery was ended and black males could vote, but the workload and standard of living of African Americans changed little. Virginia was put under military rule for five years.
332. VHSSTO_160812_1417.JPG: Weaponry
333. VHSSTO_160812_1420.JPG: No development had as much influence on Civil War combat as the extensive use of long-range rifled weapons.
334. VHSSTO_160812_1423.JPG: The Art of War One of the Civil War's greatest tragedies was that the battlefield tactics used during the conflict were not compatible with recent technological advances. No development had as much influence on Civil War combat as the extensive use of incredibly accurate long-range rifles. These inflicted horrific casualties on the massed infantry formations that were necessary in order to make their single-shot, muzzle-loading weapons effective.
335. VHSSTO_160812_1426.JPG: Weaponry
336. VHSSTO_160812_1430.JPG: Smoothbore Firearms A soldier with a smoothbore musket could fire a lead ball three times each minute but was only accurate to 100 yards. To improve close-range effectiveness, soldiers fired "buck and ball" that included, for each round, a standard musket ball plus three lead buckshot pellets. Although the bayonet was responsible for relatively few casualties, it continued to be an important psychological weapon.
337. VHSSTO_160812_1434.JPG: Breech-loading Firearms Men armed with breech-loading firearms could fire twice as fast as their muzzle-loading opponents. Most breech-loading weapons used a combustible paper or linen cartridge containing a bullet and powder. By eliminating the need to load gunpowder and a bullet down the open end of the barrel, soldiers could reload easily -- on horseback, kneeling, or even lying down.
338. VHSSTO_160812_1438.JPG: Repeating Firearms With seven rounds loaded through the stock, lever-action Spencer repeating firearms allowed a soldier to hurl seven times as much lead across the battlefield as a muzzle-loading opponent. The Spencer was widely issued to Union cavalrymen, but cost prohibited its wide use among the infantry.
339. VHSSTO_160812_1441.JPG: The typical Civil War cartridge was a paper tube containing gunpowder and a projectile. The ignition system -- a percussion cap -- was separate.
340. VHSSTO_160812_1444.JPG: Rifled Musket The rifled musket was the most common infantry weapon used by both sides; it combined the musket's rate-of-fire with the accuracy of a rifle. In the 1850s, the use of flint and steel to produce a spark was replaced by a more reliable percussion system. This was one of 31,000 manufactured by the Richmond Armory on machinery captured from Harpers Ferry in 1861.
341. VHSSTO_160812_1447.JPG: Leech & Rigdon revolver, 1863 Repeating firearms increased a soldier's fire rate exponentially. Used primarily by officers and cavalrymen on both sides, revolvers allowed high fire rates at close range. Most Civil War revolvers fired six shots before each cylinder needed to be individually reloaded with gunpowder, projectile, and detonator (percussion cap). Thomas Leech & Charles Rigdon produced about 1,000 pistols for the Confederacy at its factories in Mississippi and Georgia.
342. VHSSTO_160812_1450.JPG: Leech & Rigdon revolver, 1863
343. VHSSTO_160812_1453.JPG: "Battle between the Monitor and the Merrimack" by Xanthus Smith, about 1880, 1998.53 The March 1862 battle of ironclads at Hampton Roads changed naval warfare forever.
344. VHSSTO_160812_1459.JPG: "Battle between the Monitor and the Merrimack" by Xanthus Smith, about 1880, 1998.53 The March 1862 battle of ironclads at Hampton Roads changed naval warfare forever. On March 8, 1862, the world's first ironclad ship, CSS Virginia, destroyed two wooden-hulled US warships at Hampton Roads. This battle revolutionized naval warfare by proving that wooden vessels were obsolete against ironclads. The next day the Union's first ironclad -- USS Monitor -- arrived and fought the Virginia to a draw.
345. VHSSTO_160812_1461.JPG: Steam and Steel In the decade before the Civil War, advancements in propulsion and artillery changed naval warfare forever. By the late 1850s, all new warships featured steam engines and achieved unprecedented freedom of movement. These ships also hosted larger, more accurate, and longer ranged guns. These two developments encouraged shipbuilders to improve naval ship defenses by plating them with iron or steel. Less expensive and easier to manufacture than warships, underwater mines (then called torpedoes) were used by Confederates to defend inland rivers and coastal harbors.
346. VHSSTO_160812_1465.JPG: 1855-1860 Quadrant used aboard CSS Virginia A quadrant allows sailors to calculate a ship's north-south position by measuring the angle between the sun (or stars) and the horizon.
347. VHSSTO_160812_1477.JPG: The Changing Role of Cavalry Improved weapons changed the role of Civil War cavalry. In addition to reconnaissance, horse soldiers became a mobile strike force that often fought on foot. Confederate general J. E. B. Stuart mastered both roles. Colonel John S. Mosby led a band of mounted "partisan rangers" that disrupted federal operations in Northern Virginia by striking swiftly before dispersing into the countryside.
348. VHSSTO_160812_1480.JPG: James Ewell Brown Stuart b 6 February 1833 / d 12 May 1864 Stuart served as the chief of cavalry for the Army of Northern Virginia. He became a hero to Confederates and a terror to Union forces in June 1862, when he led a daring reconnaissance around the Union Army of the Potomac. Stuart served in every major campaign until he was mortally wounded at Yellow Tavern. Stuart grew his trademark beard after graduating from West Point in 1854. It was said he was the "only man... [a] beard improved."
349. VHSSTO_160812_1487.JPG: John Singleton Mosby b 6 December 1833 / d 30 May 1916 In 1863, the Confederacy authorized John S. Mosby to recruit a battalion of "Partisan Rangers" in Northern Virginia. His men had no encampment and lived scattered among the civilian population. They disrupted Union supply lines, and their irregular tactics led federal officials to execute un-uniformed partisans. After the war, Mosby worked as an attorney, became a Republican, and served as the US consul to Hong Kong. John S. Mosby, the lawyer turned cavalry hero, as photographed in Richmond at the time he was permitted to form and recruit "Mosby's Men."
350. VHSSTO_160812_1490.JPG: late 19th century "Presentation of the charger 'Coquette' to Colonel Mosby by the men of his command, December 1864," John J. Porter
351. VHSSTO_160812_1495.JPG: about 1862 Uniform belonging to Maj. Gen. JEB Stuart
352. VHSSTO_160812_1501.JPG: about 1862 Sash worn by Maj. Gen. JEB Stuart
353. VHSSTO_160812_1505.JPG: The Civil War in Virginia
354. VHSSTO_160812_1509.JPG: The Civil War in Virginia Home to the Confederate capital, Virginia became a battleground. More battles were fought here than in any other state. The Virginia landscape was soon scarred by fortifications, decimated forests, ruined homes and farms, and vast graveyards. More enduring was widespread poverty and the emotional scars of defeat, occupation, and subjugation felt by whites and the horrors of slavery remembered by blacks. Confederate defeat threatened to change white southern identity, and although black Virginians were no longer enslaved, equality remained an unfulfilled goal.
355. VHSSTO_160812_1512.JPG: 1863
356. VHSSTO_160812_1516.JPG: War on the Home Front For some, the war brought deprivation, horror, and loss right to their very doorsteps. For others, the war brought an uncertain journey into freedom from slavery. In the countryside, armies destroyed roads and bridges, seized food and livestock, and turned houses into hospitals. In Confederate-controlled cities, overcrowding, shortages, inflation, and hunger plagued everyone. In Northern Virginia, the Eastern Shore, and Norfolk the liberties of residents were restricted by occupying Union forces. The western counties suffered pitiless guerrilla warfare. [Virginia possessed the largest number of the estimated 200,000 southerners -- slaves, Unionists, and Confederates -- who fled their homes during the Civil War.]
357. VHSSTO_160812_1519.JPG: Making Do, and Doing Without A Union naval blockade and the needs of the Confederate armies and a Union naval blockade led to shortages of food, fuel, and clothing. Many white women were forced to learn household skills -- such as spinning, weaving, and braiding straw -- either to outfit themselves or to sell or barter for food and other items. Black women also suffered wartime deprivations, but the institution of slavery taught them to make do with scarcity. Richmond's "Bread Riot" of April 2, 1863, was the largest of a series of civil disturbances across the South -- led mainly by poor women -- as the Confederate economy buckled.
358. VHSSTO_160812_1523.JPG: Confederate Currency The primary way the Confederacy funded the war was by printing paper money. This contributed to runaway inflation that plagued the South throughout the war. In January 1863, a Richmond newspaper reported that the weekly cost to feed a small family had risen from $6.55 in 1860 to $68.25. By April 1865, prices in the South had increased by 9,000 percent.
359. VHSSTO_160812_1525.JPG: Confederate currency printed by the Commonwealth of Virginia and various counties, 1861-1865, 2010.40.23
360. VHSSTO_160812_1530.JPG: Children in the Civil War Virginia's children experienced uncertainty, hardship, and violence that forced them to mature quickly. Most helped support their families by taking jobs that fathers and brothers left vacant. Many worked outside the home in wartime industries. Children of "contraband" slaves gathered in unhealthy, overcrowded camps in Northern Virginia or the Tidewater where they worked to earn money to eat. The Civil War was the last American war in which children served as musicians.
361. VHSSTO_160812_1534.JPG: Cottage industries The removal of men into the army demanded increased participation of women -- both black and white -- in ways previously discouraged. They took over the management of shops and farms. Slaveholding women faced the additional challenge of managing and providing for slaves. Black and white mothers struggled to provide shelter, nourishment, and safety for their families. Richmond's Confederate States Laboratory produced 1,200 cartridges a day. A March 1863 explosion killed and wounded fifty-six workers -- many were girls under sixteen.
362. VHSSTO_160812_1537.JPG: Wheeler & Wilson Sewing Machine (Reproduction)
363. VHSSTO_160812_1540.JPG: Wheeler & Wilson Sewing Machine (Reproduction) Most Confederate uniforms were sewn for the army by women working in their homes. At the Richmond Clothing Bureau, twenty-four professional tailors cut out the components for each Confederate uniform. Bundled together with thread and buttons, the various parts and pieces were distributed to thousands of local seamstresses, who assembled the garments in their homes. Although sewing machines, like this one, were available to some, most women stitched each piece together by hand.
364. VHSSTO_160812_1550.JPG: Virginia possessed the largest number of the estimated 200,000 southerners -- slaves, Unionists, and Confederates -- who fled their homes during the Civil War.
365. VHSSTO_160812_1557.JPG: Loss Twenty-five thousand Virginia soldiers died during the Civil War, and rarely did next of kin receive timely notification -- if any. But when the battlefield was nearby, the horror of death was especially shocking. In the nineteenth century, people traditionally observed formal periods of mourning. In the South, where nearly one in five white men of military age died in the war, it was universal.
366. VHSSTO_160812_1560.JPG: Mourning Brooch Few Virginians escaped the tragic loss of a friend or loved one. Mourning traditions in the nineteenth century centered primarily on women. Full mourning, a period of a year and one day, was represented with black clothing and veiled face. Mourning jewelry, such as this brooch, could be worn during the following nine months of second mourning and six months of half mourning before color was gradually reintroduced into the wardrobe.
367. VHSSTO_160812_1564.JPG: Mourning Brooch
368. VHSSTO_160812_1579.JPG: Watercolor Portrait of Hetty Cary The Pegram-Cary wedding in January 1865 was a momentarily happy moment in an otherwise dismal winter. Hetty Cary of Baltimore escaped to Richmond in the early days of the war. There she met John Pegram in 1862. The couple was soon engaged, and their January 1865 wedding was a major social event. Eighteen days later, John was killed near Petersburg, and exactly three weeks after their wedding, his funeral took place in the same church where the couple had been married.
369. VHSSTO_160812_1582.JPG: Watercolor Portrait of Hetty Cary
370. VHSSTO_160812_1585.JPG: Insignia of Brig. Gen. John Pegram
371. VHSSTO_160812_1588.JPG: Pocket Watch of Brig. Gen. John Pegram
372. VHSSTO_160812_1591.JPG: Slavery During the War Most enslaved Virginians continued working on farms, in factories, and serving households throughout the war. Although thousands escaped, most took advantage of the war's upheaval to gain some measure of autonomy for their families. The wartime actions of most black Virginians exhibited their strong desire for freedom, and nearly all who chose not to escape welcomed the Union army as liberators.
373. VHSSTO_160812_1595.JPG: The Scarecrow, Late 19th century Farm labor by enslaved Virginians was vital to the Confederacy. Most of Virginia's slaves worked as agricultural laborers, and their wartime production fed both civilians and soldiers. Allen Carter Redwood painted "The Scarecrow" after the war, but the labor and laborers looked much the same as before. The dead crow may symbolize the Jim Crow laws that kept many emancipated African Americans overworked field workers after the war. Controlled by the Union army throughout the war, Fort Monroe was referred to as "freedom fort" by slaves in Tidewater Virginia.
374. VHSSTO_160812_1603.JPG: The Scarecrow, Late 19th century by Allen Carter Redwood
375. VHSSTO_160812_1613.JPG: Pistols belonging to Major John B. Cary
376. VHSSTO_160812_1616.JPG: Pistols belonging to Major John B. Cary At Fort Monroe, Cary unwittingly pushed federal policy toward emancipation. A native of Hampton, Cary likely wore one of these revolvers when he demanded that Union general Benjamin Butler return three slaves who had escaped from their owner. Acting on his own authority, Butler announced, "I shall hold these Negroes as contraband of war," thereby taking an early step in transforming Lincoln's "war to preserve the Union" into a war to end slavery.
377. VHSSTO_160812_1621.JPG: Contraband The fugitive slave law called for the return of fugitives to their masters, but the onset of war and the exodus of many slaves caused federal officials to reconsider. In May 1861, the Union commander at Fort Monroe decided to accept runaways as contraband of war -- property useful to the enemy -- because otherwise the slaves' labor would aid the Confederacy.
378. VHSSTO_160812_1626.JPG: Emancipation Proclamation On September 22, 1862, Abraham Lincoln declared all slaves in areas not returned to federal control by January 1, 1863, "then, thenceforward, and forever free." His Emancipation Proclamation exempted areas occupied by Union forces and the forty-eight counties forming West Virginia. The transformation of war aims to include ending slavery encouraged more slaves to escape to Union lines and enlist in the federal army. Black enlistment in Union armies began in July 1862; ultimately 200,000 black men served. The vast majority were former slaves.
379. VHSSTO_160812_1631.JPG: The Final Days of the Civil War The spring of 1865 witnessed the collapse of the Confederacy and the end of slavery. After Appomattox, all Virginians faced an uncertain future. By the spring of 1865, the Confederate army defending Richmond was stretched to the breaking point. On April 2, Union forces overran the southern defenses near Petersburg, forcing Robert E. Lee's army to abandon both cities. During the evacuation of Richmond, fire destroyed much of the city. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant on April 9 at Appomattox Court House.
380. VHSSTO_160812_1634.JPG: Position of Union and Rebel Forces before Petersburg
381. VHSSTO_160812_1637.JPG: Trench Warfare The extensive use of interconnected lines of field fortifications -- trenches and obstructions -- defined the campaign to capture Richmond and Petersburg. By April 1865, the opposing armies had constructed thirty-seven miles of earthen fortifications. These types of defenses were not new to war, and both sides understood that using them multiplied a defender's strength by a factor of three.
382. VHSSTO_160812_1639.JPG: Total War Following the bloody battles of the Overland Campaign in May and June 1864, Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant moved the Army of the Potomac south to Petersburg -- a key supply center for Richmond. The nine-month campaign that followed also involved fighting north of the James River near Richmond and was closely linked with military movements in the Shenandoah Valley.
383. VHSSTO_160812_1644.JPG: Five Forks In the spring of 1865, Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant captured the Confederate's last supply line at Petersburg -- the South Side Railroad -- by advancing on a road junction in Dinwiddie County known as Five Forks. The decisive Union victory heralded the end of the stalemate at Petersburg and set the stage for the breakthrough that followed the next day. Best known for his destructive Shenandoah Valley Campaign in 1864, Sheridan personally led the charge that routed Pickett's left flank at Five Forks. Pickett -- best known for his role at Gettysburg -- was two miles away enjoying a shad bake when the federals attacked at Five Forks. He returned too late to rally his men.
384. VHSSTO_160812_1648.JPG: Petersburg During the War Petersburg stands at the falls of the Appomattox River, twenty-three miles south of Richmond. Five railroad lines met in the city, making it one of the South's leading transportation hubs. In June 1864, Union and Confederate troops descended on the strategic city. The campaign to defend Petersburg lasted 292 days -- the longest in U.S. history -- and produced more than 75,000 casualties.
385. VHSSTO_160812_1653.JPG: late 19th century Battle of Five Forks by Paul D. Phillippeteaux
386. VHSSTO_160812_1672.JPG: Mariette Patent Belgian Pin-Fire Revolver belonging to Confederate captain Clement Sulivane As he set fire to Richmond's Mayo Bridge, Captain Sulivane was one of the last Confederates to escape the city before it was occupied by Union troops.
387. VHSSTO_160812_1679.JPG: Map of Richmond Virginia in 1863 -- Rebel Prisons The Burned District Union private Robert K. Sneden visited Richmond as a prisoner of war in 1863. Although many of the street names are incorrect, his map shows the area that would be engulfed in flames during the Confederate evacuation on April 3, 1865. More than twenty city blocks from Main Street to the river and all of the bridges across the James were destroyed.
388. VHSSTO_160812_1686.JPG: Evacuation When its lines were broken by the pre-dawn assault of Union forces on April 2, 1865, the Confederate army began evacuating the fortifications defending Petersburg and Richmond. With the federals expected to enter Richmond the following day, and without the protection of the military, the Confederate government fled the capital.
389. VHSSTO_160812_1689.JPG: The Evacuation Fire As southbound Confederates crossed over the James River on April 3, [1865] the rear guard set fire to Richmond's tobacco warehouses and railroad bridges. A sudden wind from the south blew flames and burning embers northward. As the last Confederates left the city, federal troops arrived from the east, accepted the formal surrender of the city, and began extinguishing the fires.
390. VHSSTO_160812_1694.JPG: Fires raging through the industrial, warehouse, and business districts added to the confusion and chaos of the last night Richmond served as the Confederate capital.
391. VHSSTO_160812_1698.JPG: Stars from Gen. Robert E. Lee's Uniform, about 1865 These stars were sent to family friend Belle Harrison in May 1865. Lee did not usually wear the proper collar insignia of a Confederate general -- three gold stars in a wreath. Instead he wore only the three gold stars of a colonel -- a rank he held in the US army for only twenty-three days before resigning to join the Confederacy on April 20, 1861.
392. VHSSTO_160812_1706.JPG: "Let Us Have Peace" by Jean Leon Gerome Ferris, about 1920
393. VHSSTO_160812_1717.JPG: Surrender at Appomattox Court House Relentlessly pursued by the federal army, Gen. Robert E. Lee moved his diminishing army westward in an attempt to join Confederate forces in North Carolina. By April 8 -- after a week of running battles -- the Army of Northern Virginia found itself surrounded, outnumbered, and short of supplies. The next day, Lee surrendered his army to Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant.
394. VHSSTO_160812_1721.JPG: From Manassas to Appomattox In July 1861, Wilmer McLean's home near Bull Run drew fire from Union troops before the first battle of Manassas. A sugar broker during the war, he decided to move to Appomattox Court House to be closer to his business interests in southern Virginia. In April 1865, Ulysses S. Grant and Robert E. Lee met in McLean's home to negotiate the surrender of the Army of Northern Virginia. The McLean house was disassembled in the 1890s in a failed effort to move the historic building to Washington DC. It was reconstructed in 1949 as part of Appomattox National Historical Monument.
395. VHSSTO_160812_1725.JPG: Plan showing positions of Union and Rebel armies, 8th and 9th April 1865. To the surrender of Lee. 2nd Corps at Cumberland Church.
396. VHSSTO_160812_1730.JPG: The Robert K. Sneden Collection The Robert Knox Sneden collection is perhaps the largest collection of soldier art to survive the war. The Virginia Historical Society acquired Union private Robert K. Sneden's scrapbooks of nearly 400 drawings, maps, and watercolors in 1994 after a descendent discovered them in a Connecticut bank vault. Three years later a Sneden relative in Tuscon, Arizona, made Sneden's memoir and about 500 more watercolors and maps available to the society. Sneden's maps and images appear throughout this exhibition.
397. VHSSTO_160812_1737.JPG: The Last Full Measure Among 1.6 million Virginians, 398,000 men were eligible for military service. 193,000 eligible Virginians did not serve. 155,000 Virginians served in the Confederacy. 50,000 Virginians (including African Americans) served in the Union. 34,000 Virginians died.
398. VHSSTO_160812_1741.JPG: 193,000 eligible Virginians did not serve. 155,000 Virginians served in the Confederacy. 50,000 Virginians (including African Americans) served in the Union. 34,000 Virginians died.
399. VHSSTO_160812_1743.JPG: Military Deaths by State Confederacy: Chart shows Virginia and North Carolina having the highest losses with Alabama a close second. Union: Chart shows that New York had the highest losses -- about 8,000 higher than Virginia and North Carolina. USCT are shown on the far right.
400. VHSSTO_160812_1746.JPG: The Cost of War The total cost of the war to the Confederate states was approximately $3.2 billion in 1860 dollars. The devastation wrought in Virginia was enormous: burned or plundered homes, loss of crops and farm animals, neglected roads and ruined bridges. The value of personal property statewide decreased by nearly 40 percent -- in large part because enslaved African Americans were no longer property.
401. VHSSTO_160812_1752.JPG: "All should unite in honest efforts to obliterate the effects of war, and to restore the blessings of peace." -- Robert E. Lee, August 1865
402. VHSSTO_160812_1760.JPG: Thirty-One Star United States Flag, about 1858 One of the first US flags to fly over Richmond in April 1865. This 31-star United States flag was taken back to New Jersey by Maj. Frederick Martin. His granddaughter gave it to the Westfield New Jersey Historical Society, which gave it to the Virginia Historical Society "as a symbol of friendship between two historical societies, one in the South, and one in the North." The star patter reflects our national motto -- "Out of many, One."
403. VHSSTO_160812_1763.JPG: 1865
404. VHSSTO_160812_1767.JPG: The Cult of the "Lost Cause" Former Confederates crafted a historical interpretation of the Civil War to reconcile the prewar society they admired and the devastation that accompanied southern defeat. The "Lost Cause" narrative was developed by former Confederates, who claimed that states' rights, not slavery, caused the war; that enslaved blacks remained faithful to their masters; and that the South was defeated only by overwhelming numerical and industrial strength. Confederate veteran and memorial associations promoted "Lost Cause" themes to help white southerners cope with the many changes during this era.
405. VHSSTO_160812_1771.JPG: Confederate Reunions, Monuments, and Memories For whites, the memory of the Civil War did not end at Appomattox. At public events, former Confederates were honored as heroic defenders of their homes, and likenesses of generals were cast into bronze statues and painted on canvas. Robert E. Lee was portrayed as the greatest of all, and his generals were depicted as modern knights. Allegiance to the old order became more firmly entrenched.
406. VHSSTO_160812_1774.JPG: 1919 Frederick Slevers's plaster model for his bronze statue of Stonewall Jackson on Richmond's Monument Avenue
407. VHSSTO_160812_1781.JPG: The Lost Cause Many white southerners sought reaffirmation that the Confederate stand was an episode enacted nobly and a past to be revered. They created the "cult of the Lost Cause," a celebration of the Confederacy devoid of criticism and conducted with enthusiasm to reinforce the existing social order and even inspire. It survives today. The Historical Society building began as "Battle Abbey," a creation of this movement.
408. VHSSTO_160812_1785.JPG: A New Constitution and Legislature When southern legislatures refused to ratify the 14th Amendment, which gave citizenship to blacks, Congress passed Reconstruction acts in 1867 that reduced the former Confederate states to conquered provinces. Each state was to assemble a convention that would draft a new constitution and appoint a legislature. Robert E. Lee encouraged whites to "elect the best available men to . . . whose decision everyone should submit."
409. VHSSTO_160812_1791.JPG: A Carpetbagger and Republican Lt. Col. Henry Wells commanded military police in Union-held territory south of the Potomac River, where he helped to capture Abraham Lincoln's assassin, John Wilkes Booth. After the war, Wells, formerly a Michigan legislator, moved to Richmond and in 1868 during military rule was appointed provisional governor. He failed to win election in 1869, then served as U.S. Attorney for Virginia's Eastern District.
410. VHSSTO_160812_1793.JPG: Carpetbag, about 1866, 1967.9 Left by a northern visitor in the home of Col. John Pollard of King and Queen County.
411. VHSSTO_160812_1798.JPG: "Carpetbaggers" Northerners who moved into the South after the Civil War became known as "carpetbaggers" for the luggage they carried. They came for economic gain, a desire to work on behalf of the newly emancipated slaves, or a combination of both. Resented by former Confederates, these new Virginians played a central role in shaping new southern governments during Reconstruction.
412. VHSSTO_160812_1801.JPG: The Readjusters The Readjuster Party -- which campaigned to readjust (lower) the state's large pre-Civil War debt -- brought together an unlikely coalition of former slaves and poor whites to win control of the state legislature. In 1881 they held the governorship and elected former Confederate general William Mahone to the U.S. Senate. In 1885, voters rejected the Readjusters for a Democratic Party that initiated a century of racial discrimination. A broadside announcing a meeting of Republicans and Readjusters to ratify a new state constitution of 1870, which prohibited slavery and established free public schools.
413. VHSSTO_160812_1811.JPG: The 15th Amendment African Americans were emancipated by the 13th Amendment and promised equal protection under the laws by the 14th. Black men (not women) were given the vote by the 15th Amendment. Their votes were needed to keep Republicans in power. Each African American was no longer counted as 3/5 of [a] person -- a compromise provision in the Constitution. As a result, the southern states suddenly earned more representation in Congress.
414. VHSSTO_160812_1813.JPG: African American Education Former slaves were educated at a Freedman's school in Chimborazo, in Richmond. Nineteen-year-old Elizabeth Cartland, a white Quaker from New Hampshire, recorded the ages, daily attendance, and development of seventy students. Early progress was made in education for African Americans, particularly in the 1880s when the "Readjusters" were in power, before the resurgence of the Democratic Party in the late 1880s.
415. VHSSTO_160812_1818.JPG: Black Office-Holders in State Government Allowed to vote, African Americans elected about 100 black representatives to the Virginia General Assembly between 1869 and 1890. Most were members of Abraham Lincoln's Republican Party, which had championed the end of slavery. Notable among them were Dr. Daniel M. Norton, a physician and political leader in Hampton, and Edward David Bland of Prince George, who allied with the integrated Readjuster Party.
416. VHSSTO_160812_1823.JPG: A horse-drawn hearse from the African American–owned A. D. Price Funeral Home
417. VHSSTO_160812_1827.JPG: In 1888, John Mercer Langston became the first African American elected to Congress from Virginia. He was one of only five blacks elected from the South before 1973.
418. VHSSTO_160812_1836.JPG: Development of a Black Middle Class Former slaves were denied access to decent jobs and commercial services by segregation laws. This system of racial discrimination came to be known as "Jim Crow"––in reference to a stereotypical black character in minstrel shows. African Americans were compelled to establish parallel economies in order to find jobs and such basic services as grocery stores, banks, and hotels.
419. VHSSTO_160812_1841.JPG: William Washington Brown, founder of the Grand Fountain of the United Order of True Reformers and grand worthy master of Virginia.
420. VHSSTO_160812_1845.JPG: The Grand Fountain of the United Order of True Reformers Former slaves helped one another through mutual-aid societies and fraternal organizations like the Grand Fountain of the United Order of True Reformers. It became the largest and most successful black business enterprise in the United States between 1881 and 1910. William Washington Browne, a former slave, founded it in Richmond. Members were offered banking, real estate, and retirement services, and a youth business division.
421. VHSSTO_160812_1849.JPG: Daniel Webster David b 1862 / d 1913 Born into slavery, Davis became a teacher, minister, historian, and poet. His teaching career spanned three decades in Virginia, West Virginia, and the Carolinas. In 1896, he was ordained and served as a Baptist minister in South Richmond until his death. In such poetry as "Weh Down Souf" and often in his sermons, David united dialect with history and the gospels to champion racial justice.
422. VHSSTO_160812_1853.JPG: Booker T. Washington b 5 April 1856 / d 14 November 1915 Between 1890 and 1915, Washington was a leader in the African American community. Born a slave in the Valley of Virginia, he became the voice of the former slaves and their descendants. He advocated long-term educational and economic advancement and cooperation with the white hierarchy -- rather than confrontation over segregation. His Tuskegee Institute in Alabama became a national center of black education.
423. VHSSTO_160812_1856.JPG: Slavery by Another Name To control former slaves, Virginia in 1866 passed an act "for the Punishment of Vagrants" –– it targeted the unemployed. It resembled prewar black codes that restricted liberty. The law empowered officials to arrest or hire out to work anyone who had no means of support or refused to work at (low) wages. No appeal was allowed. In this way a labor shortage on the plantations was answered. The 14th Amendment was soon passed to protect the rights of African Americans.
424. VHSSTO_160812_1860.JPG: 1866 Sharecropping agreement, for one year, made between Samuel Allen of Buckingham County and freedmen Ben Miller, Willis Chambers, George Sharp, Archer Chambers, Jessie Lewis, Henry Holman, Adam Holman, and Walker Cabell Under sharecropping, white landowners provided land and usually housing, tools, and seed to impoverished farmers who would work the soil and receive part of the crop they grew. Here, Allen agrees to furnish horses, oxen, and farming utensils, to provide meat and corn to eat, and to give the freedmen one half of the corn, wheat, oats, and tobacco grown. He will not provide them with shoes and clothing.
425. VHSSTO_160812_1870.JPG: The Knights of Pythias Unlike the True Reformers and the Order of St. Luke, which were mutual-aid societies, the Knights of Pythias was an African American secret fraternal order��––similar to the Masons. Named for Pythias, an ancient Greek willing to sacrifice his life to save a friend, Pythians strove to copy that example of friendship and loyalty. They sold insurance that paid funeral expenses and provided death benefits and sick pay.
426. VHSSTO_160812_1872.JPG: about 1890 Knights of Pythias Helmet
427. VHSSTO_160812_1880.JPG: Benevolent masters and contented slaves populate the mythic Old South projected in this popular song, which served to invoke nostalgic memories of bygone days.
428. VHSSTO_160812_1882.JPG: The Failure of Reconstruction Black political advancement in Virginia largely ceased by the 1890s. The Democratic Party gained control of the government, and one-party rule began, lasting nearly a century. A state constitution written in 1902 was progressive in attacking corporate corruption but regressive in restricting voter registration. The pool of eligible black voters was greatly reduced. Thomas Martin first directed the party followed by Harry Byrd in the 1920s.
429. VHSSTO_160812_1891.JPG: A Communications Revolution Despite the advance in communication brought by the telegraph, which uses electrical signals transmitted over a wire, few in the 1880s could envision a device that would permit distance users to conduct a conversation heard directly. The electric telephone did that. It rapidly became indispensable to businesses, government, and households. It also provided women jobs outside the home as operators.
430. VHSSTO_160812_1892.JPG: Reconstruction During the decade following the Civil War, former Confederate states were required to "reconstruct" their state governments before reentering the Union. When Virginia's immediate postwar government restricted the rights of former slaves, Congress placed the commonwealth under military rule until a new constitution could be adopted. The "Underwood Constitution" was adopted in 1870; it reformed the tax system, created a system of free public schools, and recognized the 14th and 15th Amendments to the U.S. Constitution. By 1890, however, white legislators restored white supremacy through segregation.
431. VHSSTO_160812_1895.JPG: In use late 1890s through 1930s Magneto Wall Set Telephone
432. VHSSTO_160812_1903.JPG: Streetcar, 1918, 1997.131
433. VHSSTO_160812_1906.JPG: Light Without Fire Although Virginia's largest cities were using electricity by the end of the nineteenth century, some rural areas were not electrified until after World War II. The state's first large-scale supply of electricity was made available in 1909 by the investor-owned Virginia Railway and Power Company -- renamed the Virginia Electric and Power Company (VEPCO) in 1925. During the Great Depression, the federal government's creation of the Rural Electrification Administration helped Virginians establish local electric cooperatives that improved living standards in the countryside.
434. VHSSTO_160812_1912.JPG: Electric Fruit Juicer, 1918 This juicer was manufactured by The California Fruit Growers Exchange By the 1880s, oranges grown in Florida and California were so plentiful that they were shipped to markets across the country via the transcontinental railway system. Their availability and nutritional value made oranges popular, the electrical appliances made the production of their juice much easier than squeezing them manually.
435. VHSSTO_160812_1917.JPG: Kodak No. 2C Brownie Camera, 1907 In 1888, Kodak introduced the first widely used "box" camera Before box cameras, photography involved the use of chemicals and glass plates, making it too difficult and expensive for the average person. Box cameras used flexible rolls of film that allowed cameras to become light and portable. The first Kodak box cameras came pre-loaded with film, and the entire camera was sent away to have the photographs developed.
436. VHSSTO_160812_1925.JPG: Electric Hair Dryer, about 1920 Though convenient, many new electrical appliances were also dangerous. Hair dryers were first mass-marketed in the 1920s and were continuously redesigned. Nonetheless, they were responsible for hundreds of deaths by electrocution in the mid-twentieth century. As a result, the Consumer Product Safety Commission established guidelines for their safe manufacture in the 1970s.
437. VHSSTO_160812_1930.JPG: Electric iron, about 1912 Before electricity, ironing clothes was a laborious, time-consuming job. This 1912 electric iron is an improvement on pre-electric ones that were heated on stoves or fires. Non-electric irons -- called "sad irons" by the women who used them -- were heavy, lost their heat quickly, and could burn fabric.
438. VHSSTO_160812_1937.JPG: Electric Toaster, 1910 Electricity made possible a wave of new kitchen appliances. This early electric toaster was one of the first marketed to the general public. Although primitive, it served its purpose well. Its doors folded down to insert bread, saving time. Before the electric toaster, bread had to be toasted using fire.
439. VHSSTO_160812_1942.JPG: RCA Radiola 21 Tabletop Speaker, 1929 RCA Type PB-90 Velocity Microphone, about 1936 The introduction of wireless mass media helped to soften regional identities. The wireless transmission of electromagnetic signals made radio from first form of mass media to compete with newspapers. All Virginians -- rich and poor, literate or not -- could be reached. Beginning in the 1920s, radio created a culture of mass-consumed news and entertainment that continues to this day. From 1940 to 2009, radio host Harvey Hudson woke up thousands of Virginians using this microphone.
440. VHSSTO_160812_1949.JPG: Diehl Electric Co. "Ribbonaire" Electric Fan, about 1930 Before air conditioning, electric fans provided the best relief from the summer heat in Virginia. Electric fans with fast-moving metal blades that were not covered proved to be dangerous. This unusual "Ribbonaire" fan was designed in the 1930s with safety in mind. It has fabric blades that could not harm a person or a pet.
441. VHSSTO_160812_1954.JPG: Underwood Manual Typewriter, about 1930 Typewriters produced typed work without the use of a printing press. Typewriters became standard equipment in offices, and their portability meant they could also be used at home.
442. VHSSTO_160812_1967.JPG: A New Way to Wash Before electricity, one of the most time consuming and difficult jobs women performed was the washing of clothes. Electricity made possible the creation of a labor-saving machine that could perform that work with considerably less effort. Electric washers and other appliances also reduced the need for domestic servants in middle-class homes.
443. VHSSTO_160812_1973.JPG: about 1936 Water Witch model electric washing machine with wringer, Sears Roebuck and Company
444. VHSSTO_160812_1977.JPG: about 1890 Wood tub washer and wringer, The Terriff Perfect Washer Company, Portland, Michigan
445. VHSSTO_160812_1981.JPG: The Streetcar: Modernity and Mobility Streetcars became a symbol of modern technology in Virginia in May 1888 when Richmond became the first city in the world to introduce a large-scale, fully operational electric streetcar system. The twelve-mile network of tracks extended beyond the city limits, facilitating growth and allowing for the development of suburban communities, particularly west and north of the city.
446. VHSSTO_160812_1984.JPG: Cities were smaller when citizens had to walk to work. "Walking cities" could expand outward when streetcars allowed people to live farther from their jobs. The residences of many cities enjoyed the wonders of electricity by the early twentieth century. The streetcar was perhaps the most remarkable of those wonders.
447. VHSSTO_160812_1987.JPG: Streetcar, 1918 Streetcar systems developed in Virginia's cities as their populations grew. Initially, streetcars were pulled by horses along steel rails that ran down the middle of streets. In Richmond, Frank Sprague of new York developed a slef-propelled streetcar by creating a central generating station that provided electricity to the system. Streetcars were connected to this power source with long poles, called trolleys, that extended from the car to wires that ran overhead.
448. VHSSTO_160812_1991.JPG: Map showing all the Street Railway Lines in the Cities of Richmond & Winchester, Virginia
449. VHSSTO_160812_1995.JPG: Parks with carousels and other amusements were often located at the end of streetcar lines, providing entertainment at accessible destinations away from the city.
450. VHSSTO_160812_1998.JPG: New Technology, Old Discrimination Although electric streetcars were symbols of progress, they also became daily reminders of racial segregation. Initially riders were able to sit where they chose, but a 1906 law requiring African Americans to sit in the back led to a year-long boycott of the system. Though unsuccessful, the boycott signaled assertiveness among blacks willing to challenge Jim Crow laws.
451. VHSSTO_160812_2003.JPG: Streetcar workers in Richmond went on strike for two months in 1903, part of a wave of labor unrest experienced by streetcar companies across the nation.
452. VHSSTO_160812_2006.JPG: End of the Line By the 1940s, streetcars were less relevant as cities across the nation replaced them with buses, and the automobile became the dominant vehicle for transportation. Thousands of people lined Richmond's Main Street on November 25, 1949, to watch the final ride of a system that had served the city for more than half a century. To salvage their metal, the streetcars were burned.
453. VHSSTO_160812_2010.JPG: Shocking Improvements to Daily Life Electricity came to Virginia's largest cities by the end of the 1800s, but some rural areas did not receive it until the 1940s or later. Electric appliances like the toaster, washing machine, and iron, reduced the time needed to complete household chores and rewarded users -- particularly women -- with time to enjoy new forms of entertainment.
454. VHSSTO_160812_2018.JPG: Virginia in the New South
455. VHSSTO_160812_2021.JPG: 1876 to 1924 After the Civil War, Virginia remained largely rural but Virginians embraced economic development and the new technologies that were revolutionizing everyday life. At the same time, however, they resisted political and social change -- especially racial and gender equality. Living standards improved and income rose, but the political system became less democratic and society was rigidly segregated by race. "The New South" brought economic renewal but little reform. The Virginia legislature rejected a woman's right to vote in 1919, and it passed a regressive Racial Integrity Act in 1924.
456. VHSSTO_160812_2025.JPG: 1900
457. VHSSTO_160812_2029.JPG: A New Virginia What was called the Progressive Movement spurred the creation nationally of a more industrialized economy and more urbanized population. The hope in Virginia was that the Progressive impulse could life the defeated region into recovery and to its former national stature as part of a New South. Railroad lines across the state made development feasible. Northerners and Europeans looked to invest. A New Virginia began to emerge.
458. VHSSTO_160812_2032.JPG: Wooden Railroad Wheel Pattern Forms, Richmond, about 1910 The revitalized railroad industry built locomotives in Richmond and in Roanoke. The iron industry that had lured the Confederate capital to Richmond was revived after the war by railroad manufacturing. In 1887, Richmond Locomotive Works grew out of Tredegar Iron Works. It produced some 4,500 steam engines, which were shipped across America, to Europe, Asia, and the South Pacific. In 1901 the works merged with others to form the American Locomotive Company, which continued production in Richmond until 1927.
459. VHSSTO_160812_2035.JPG: This engine was built by the American Locomotive Company's Richmond factory in 1902. The large wheels were 62 inches in diameter and the engine weighed 141,700 pounds.
460. VHSSTO_160812_2038.JPG: Wooden Railroad Wheel Pattern Forms, Richmond, about 1910, on loan from the Virginia Museum of Transportation, Inc.
461. VHSSTO_160812_2047.JPG: Iron Breast-Auger and Breast Plate, 1946 An auger is used to drill holes in soft coal for the placement of explosives. The 1873 discovery of vast high-grade coal fields transformed southwest Virginia into a booming, industrialized area. Steam locomotives -- powered by coal -- carried the products of the mines to Norfolk and Newport News for export worldwide. Coal mining is extremely dangerous. Hazards include suffocation, gas poisoning, roof collapse, gas explosions, and such debilitating chronic diseases as black lung.
462. VHSSTO_160812_2060.JPG: Cigarette Capital of the World Although the production of twist chewing tobacco and snuff continued, a new demand for pipes and cigars revitalized Virginia's postwar economy. By 1880, Richmond and Petersburg produced a million pounds of smoking tobacco per year. With the introduction of bright leaf tobacco, cigarette usage increased from 14 to 200 million Americans. Richmond became the cigarette capital of the world.
463. VHSSTO_160812_2062.JPG: about 1890 The Enchanter, produced by Watson and McGill, Petersburg
464. VHSSTO_160812_2067.JPG: after 1916 Lucky Strike cigarette tin
465. VHSSTO_160812_2075.JPG: Richmond Gem Cigarettes, about 1900 Allen & Ginter, a Richmond firm, was acquired by the American Tobacco Company of Durham By 1900, one-half of the work force of Richmond and Petersburg was producing tobacco for pipes and cigars. By 1910, production totaled 12,000 brands of plug, twist, and fine-cut chewing tobacco; 7,000 brands of smoking tobacco; 3,600 brands of snuff; and 2,000 brands of cigarettes, cigarros, and cheroots. Consolidation and marketing eventually reduced the numbers to a few brands nationally.
466. VHSSTO_160812_2079.JPG: Virginia & Women's Suffrage: A Promise Redeemed
467. VHSSTO_160812_2088.JPG: Virginia and Women's Suffrage Despite the socio-political changes that occurred during Reconstruction, women at the dawn of the twentieth century still lacked a basic right of citizenship: the vote. Even before the Seneca Falls Convention of 1848, American women clamored for full citizenship. Unlike women in the North and West, southerners were reluctant to form pro-suffrage organizations because of opposition from local governments. By 1909, the tide of sentiment shifted; Lila Meade Valentine, Ad�le Clark, Ellen Glasgow, and other Virginia women launched the operations of Virginia‘s Equal Suffrage League.
468. VHSSTO_160812_2092.JPG: Let Women Vote National Women Suffrage Association 1919
469. VHSSTO_160812_2095.JPG: I Love My Husband, but -- Oh You Vote
470. VHSSTO_160812_2099.JPG: Walking Suit of Mamie Lee Johnson Marshall This walking suit, worn by Campbell, Virginia, native Mamie Lee Johnson Marshall, is typical of the stylish but utilitarian clothes worn by women participating in suffrage protests. about 1913 Tri-Color Sash from the National Women's Party In 1913, purple, white, and gold became the National Women's Party official colors. Tricolor ribbons, banners, and sashes were used nationwide to promote women's suffrage.
471. VHSSTO_160812_2113.JPG: A Fierce Sisterhood: Virginia's Suffragist Leadership Facing strong opposition, Virginia's suffrage groups -- like their national counterparts -- placed charismatic and well-connected women in charge of their campaign for the vote. Individuals like Lila Meade Valentine, Adele Clark, Mary Munford, and Jane Porter Barrett used their financial, political, and social clout in their battles for female equality. Their unique contributions were essential to the success of the movement.
472. VHSSTO_160812_2116.JPG: Members of the Virginia League of Women Voters meet with Virginia senator Claude Swanson and Carter Glass in 1923 to encourage the study of government for more efficient citizenship.
473. VHSSTO_160812_2119.JPG: Lila Meade Valentine founded the Equal Suffrage League of Virginia in 1909. When the vote for women finally was allowed in 1920, she was too ill to cast a ballot. Adele Clark was a major figure in Richmond art and politics for nearly seventy years and a founding member of the Equal Suffrage League. In addition to her work as a suffragist, Mary Munford championed both the advancement of women in education and the improvement of public education and race relations. In addition to registering women of color to vote, Janie Porter Barrett founded several schools for African American girls, including the Industrial School for Colored Girls in Hanover County.
474. VHSSTO_160812_2127.JPG: By 1900, segregation seemed an unstoppable force, but black Virginians spent decades fighting discrimination in the military, schools, and public places. Serving While Segregated: African Americans and the Military In World War II, Americans fought enemies in Europe and the Pacific who used ideas of racial superiority to justify aggressive expansionism. This irony was not lost on black Americans, who nonetheless bravely answered the call to arms, fighting for the "Double V" (victory over the Axis powers abroad and victory over racism and Jim Crow segregation at home).
475. VHSSTO_160812_2130.JPG: about 1943 Uniform worn by Marine Sgt. Dimmiline Booth, Jr.
476. VHSSTO_160812_2133.JPG: Sgt. Dimmiline Booth, Jr. Dimmiline Booth, Jr. was one of the first African Americans admitted into the U.S. Marine Corps. From 1943 until 1946, he was part of a military that still separated black and white servicemen. President Harry Truman signed Executive Order 9981 into law in 1948, abolishing racial discrimination in the Armed Forces and paving the way for the end of segregation in the military.
477. VHSSTO_160812_2138.JPG: Clemenceau Givings: A Tuskegee Airman b 4 November 1919 / d 3 March 1944 During World War II, The Tuskegee Airmen completed more than 1,500 missions. Inducted into the army in 1941, Richmonder Clemenceau Givings opted to join their ranks rather than attend Officer Candidate School. After logging eleven sorties and twenty-seven operation hours, Givings was killed in action over Italy in 1944. This telegram informed his family of his death.
478. VHSSTO_160812_2140.JPG: Vernon Johns: Quiet Revolutionary Darlington Heights native native Vernon Johns helped launched the civil rights movement of the mid-twentieth century. Johns preceded Martin Luther King, Jr., as head of Dexter Avenue Baptist Church in Alabama and mentored leaders of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference. Johns also influenced Farmvilles's Rev. L. Francis Griffin, who later helped organize the 1951 protest at R.R. Moton High School. Barbara Johns: Teenage Activist: Vernon Johns' niece, Barbara, also fought for racial equality. The grossly inadequate conditions in Farmville's all-black schools angered Johns, especially when she saw the new facilities being constructed for white-only schools. Fueled by her desire to enact real change in her community, sixteen-year-old Barbara helped lead the 1951 walkout from R.R. Moton High School.
479. VHSSTO_160812_2144.JPG: Separate But Unequal: Virginia's Struggles with Desegregation Despite the Supreme Court's ruling to eliminate state-supported segregated education with the Brown v. Board of Education decision, Virginia was unwilling to heed the writing on the wall. Led by Sen. Harry F. Byrd, Virginia legislators enacted laws to close schools that were under court orders to integrate. Schools in Prince Edward County remained closed for five years, forcing students to look elsewhere for their schooling.
480. VHSSTO_160812_2149.JPG: 1957 Commemorative medal, King William County Circuit Court This medal commemorates Jamestown's 350th anniversary and asserts Virginia's aggressive resistance to the Supreme Court decision to mandate school integration.
481. VHSSTO_160812_2158.JPG: Governor A. Linwood Holton b 21 September 1923 In 1969, A. Linwood Holton was elected as the first Republican governor of Virginia since 1869. The following year, when forced busing was an issue in Virginia, Holton enrolled his children in predominantly black Richmond City schools. After Holton was photographed walking his daughter, Tayloe, into Kennedy High School, he became known nationally as a symbolic supporter of federally mandated integration.
482. VHSSTO_160812_2163.JPG: Oliver Hill jacket
483. VHSSTO_160812_2166.JPG: Oliver Hill b 1 May 1907 / d 5 August 2007 Oliver White Hill, Sr., was a civil rights attorney who helped abolish the legal concept of "separate but equal." After graduating from Howard Law School in 1933, Hill returned to Richmond and practiced law until 1998. He fought for equal pay for black teachers, African American voting rights, and myriad other issues of racial equality. In 1999, President Bill Clinton awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom.
484. VHSSTO_160812_2176.JPG: Tennis racquet owned by Arthur Ashe
485. VHSSTO_160812_2181.JPG: Richard and Mildred Loving When Richard Loving and Mildred Jeter married in 1958, they had no idea that, as an interracial couple, their union violated Virginia's Racial Integrity act of 1924. The Lovings were arrested, jailed, and exiled from Virginia. The ACLU argued against the law before the U.S. Supreme Court, which ruled unanimously that the act was unconstitutional, nullifying similar laws in fifteen other states
486. VHSSTO_160812_2184.JPG: Arthur Ashe b 10 July 1943 / d 6 February 1993 Arthur Ashe began his tennis career on the colored-only courts of segregated Richmond. After a strong amateur career, Ashe became the first African American to win the World Championship Tennis singles title at Wimbledon in 1975. Off the courts, Ashe fought for racial justice in the United States and overseas, vocally opposing apartheid in South Africa. Ashe died in 1993.
487. VHSSTO_160812_2188.JPG: Everyday Virginians and the Civil Rights Movement Motivated by national leaders like Martin Luther King, Jr. everyday Virginians put themselves on the front lines in the battle against segregation. Ruth Tinsley (above) was arrested outside Thalhimers department store in Richmond, and Life magazine used her image on the cover of their issue about segregation. Dorothy Bigelow Hamm, whose button appears here, organized local efforts, raised funds, and attended rallies.
488. VHSSTO_160812_2192.JPG: Virginia and the ERA: An Unfinished Battle In 1952, Virginia finally ratified the 19th Amendment. Even after this symbolic victory, Virginia women continued to fight for equality. While the nation decided whether to pass the Equal Rights Amendment, women in the commonwealth campaigned on both sides of the issue. Congressional deadlines came and went to ratify the Amendment, and Virginia state lawmakers continue their debate on the issue to this day.
489. VHSSTO_160812_2195.JPG: Camile Rudney pants
490. VHSSTO_160812_2199.JPG: Camile Rudney in those pants (March 3, 2012)
491. VHSSTO_160812_2201.JPG: Camille Rudney b 30 October 1982 Camille Rudney, whose pants are displayed above, was among almost a thousand people who gathered on the steps of Virginia's State capitol in Richmond on Omarch 3, 2012, in opposition to anti-abortion legislation proposed by state lawmakers. Tensions ran high at the event, and roughly thirty men and women were arrested by State and Capitol police officers in riot gear.
492. VHSSTO_160812_2205.JPG: Virginia's Reproductive Rights: A Heated Debate In 2012, the Virginia legislature proposed House Bill 462, a law requiring ultrasounds for women seeking abortions. In many cases, these scans were only possible through invasive procedures. HB462 ignited a firestorm of opposition from women across the commonwealth, and the nation's attention turned to Virginia. Lawmakers wrestled with this delicate topic before eventually passing a law that mandated external, rather than internal, scans.
493. VHSSTO_160812_2208.JPG: Virginia Women and Politics When Virginia ratified the 19th Amendment in 1952, some still thought politics inappropriate for "proper" southern ladies. Six decades later, trailblazing female politicians -- such as Del. Kathryn Stone, Sen. Eva Scott, Virginia Supreme Court Justice Elizabeth Lacy, and U.S. Representative Leslie Byrne -- have made headway in disproving that notion. While Virginia women run for political office in large numbers today, they are still underrepresented.
494. VHSSTO_160812_2212.JPG: Late 20th Century Brooch, Mary Sue Terry for Governor This brooch was designed for Mary Sue Terry's 1993 gubernatorial campaign
495. VHSSTO_160812_2216.JPG: Mary Sue Terry b 28 September 1947 In 1986, more than a million voters elected Mary Sue Terry of Patrick County as attorney general. After assigning in 1993, she became the first and only Virginia woman nominated for governor. Despite her early lead, she lost to Republican George Allen. Ultra-conservative voters disliked her stance on gun control and feared that, as a single woman, she would not prioritize family issues.
496. VHSSTO_160812_2219.JPG: "I know of no way to judge the future but by the past." -- Patrick Henry
497. VHSSTO_160812_2222.JPG: Lt. Elisha Ray Nance combat jacket
498. VHSSTO_160812_2226.JPG: The "Bedford Boys" In 1941, the day after Pearl Harbor, the men of Company A, 116th Infantry, boarded trucks bound for Fort Meade, Maryland, and federal service. Among them were thirty-eight Guardsmen from Bedford. On June 6, 1944, nineteen of them were killed in Normandy during the landing on Omaha Beach. Bedford's loss was the largest per capita suffered by any American community on D-Day.
499. VHSSTO_160812_2231.JPG: Lt. Elisha Ray Nance b 26 June 1914 / d 19 April 2009 The son of a Bedford County tobacco farmer, Nance joined the National Guard during the depression. On June 6, 1944, he landed in the first wave on Omaha Beach. Wounded twice, he was the only officer in his company to survive the assault. In December 1944, he returned home and worked as a postal carrier. At the time of his death, Nance was the last surviving "Bedford Boy."
500. VHSSTO_160812_2241.JPG: Why They Fight They join for love of country and for economic need. They join to escape boredom at home and to receive an education. They join because of peer pressure and because of family tradition. They have volunteered, and they have been drafted. However they came, Virginia's men and women have served in every one of America's conflicts.
501. VHSSTO_160812_2243.JPG: Gardens of Stone American soldiers, sailors, marines, and airmen from every state are interred in Virginia's nineteen national cemeteries. The first military burial at Arlington -- formerly the home of Robert E. Lee -- took place in May 1864. Still active, the 200-acre cemetery is the final resting place for more than 400,000 service members, veterans, and their families.
502. VHSSTO_160812_2255.JPG: Tobacco Advertising Tobacco advertising began with printed labels in the 18th century. New technologies permitted companies to expand from trading cards, tin tags, and posters to magazines and billboards. Radio and television ads were popular until banned from the airwaves in 1970. Philip Morris owes much of its success to two effective advertising campaigns -- "Call for Philip Morris" and the "Marlboro Man."
503. VHSSTO_160812_2262.JPG: Tobacco The growing and processing of tobacco remains an important industry in Virginia. Although its production has declined since the 1970s, Southside and southwestern Virginia farmers continue to be major producers. Phillip Morris USA, a subsidiary of Altria, produces almost half of all the cigarettes sold in the United States, and its Richmond plant is one of the largest in the world.
504. VHSSTO_160812_2265.JPG: Suburban Amusements Trolley cars and automobiles offered Virginians more mobility. At the beginning of the twentieth century the Virginia Passenger & Power Company built an elaborate suburban amusement park at the end of their line in South Richmond. Complete with carousel, loop-the-loop, bath house, swimming area, fun house, and other amenities, the park remained a popular attraction until 1932.
505. VHSSTO_160812_2268.JPG: Lewis Hine Lewis Hine became an investigative photographer for the National Child Labor Committee -- an organization committed to the abolition of child labor -- in 1908. During the next decade he traveled around the country -- including Virginia -- photographing the working conditions of children. In 1938, the federal Fair Labor Standards Act set the minimum age of employment at fourteen.
506. VHSSTO_160812_2272.JPG: Organized Labor Although antiunion views have a long history in Virginia, workers in many industries organized in the early twentieth century. The new century also brought women in large numbers to the rank and file, and African Americans formed all-black union locals representing workers in railroading, shipbuilding, and tobacco. After World War II, union power was weakened by the adoption of right-to-work statutes still in effect.
507. VHSSTO_160812_2276.JPG: Shipbuilding Newport News Shipbuilding and Dry Dock Company was established in 1886 to repair ships used to transport coal carried there by rail from western Virginia. It soon was building warships, and, in turn, ocean liners. It has produced more than 70 percent of the U.S. Navy's fleet. It is now Huntington Ingalls Industries. Across Hampton Roads is the Norfolk Naval Shipyard, specializing in repairs and overhauling.
508. VHSSTO_160812_2283.JPG: Bird Cage & Anemometer Monitoring air quality is critical to the safety of miners. Canaries were used in coal mines to detect the presence of carbon monoxide. Their rapid breathing rate, small size, and high metabolism made them more sensitive to dangerous air quality, and their distress or death was a signal to miners to vacate a gas-filled mine. The anemometer is used to measure the flow of air entering and exiting the mine.
509. VHSSTO_160812_2292.JPG: Bird Cage for mine safety
510. VHSSTO_160812_2294.JPG: Mining Modern coal mining dates to the discovery of vast deposits in Southwest Virginia in the 1870s. A century later, demand fell because of Clean Air Act requirements for low-sulfur coal, and the supply from Virginia dropped with the exhaustion of the easy-to-mine coal beds. Once prosperous counties in southwestern Virginia have been plunged into poverty.
511. VHSSTO_160812_2296.JPG: The Byrd Machine Harry Byrd organized Democratic Party supporters at the county level to create a "machine" that kept him in power for forty years. It promoted political candidates of his choice. Byrd reduced taxes and the size and expenditures of government, brought business to the state, built rural highways, used newspapers to influence voters, and resisted school desegregation. Social services, education, and organized labor suffered.
512. VHSSTO_160812_2299.JPG: The Byrds of Virginia The descendents of William Byrd II influenced Virginia history in the twentieth century. As governor and U.S. senator, Harry Flood Byrd became the dominant force in Virginia politics from 1920 to 1960. Byrd promoted conservative "pay-as-you-go" financial policies. His brother, Richard, gained fame as a polar explorer.
513. VHSSTO_160812_2302.JPG: Twentieth-Century Exploration Lieutenant (later Admiral) Richard Evelyn Byrd, Jr., was reputedly the first man to fly over the North Pole in May 1926. He and his crew were undoubtedly the first to fly over the South Pole in November 1929. Byrd's expeditions were funded by wealthy investors, just as the Virginia Company of London had been in 1607.
514. VHSSTO_160812_2305.JPG: This reindeer fur parka was made for Adm. Richard Evelyn Byrd, brother of Harry F. Byrd, Sr., and includes a wolf fur hood. An explorer and renowned aviator, Byrd became the first man to fly to the North Pole in 1926, although some doubted his round-trip to the Pole only took sixteen hours. His later journeys to the Antarctica helped establish an American presence on that continent.
515. VHSSTO_160812_2314.JPG: 1924 to Today A century of foreign wars expanded the presence of both the federal government in northern Virginia and the military in the Hampton Roads area. Growth in those regions helped transform the state from a rural to a primarily urban one, from a poor to a relatively affluent one, and from a state with few non-natives to one with many. Only painstakingly, however, have minorities won equality. Since 1960, the population has doubled. The largest employer now is the government, next is agriculture, which added billions of dollars to the state's economy.
516. VHSSTO_160812_2321.JPG: "We are but one of the champions of the rights of mankind. We shall be satisfied when those rights have been made as secure as the faith and the freedom of nations can make them." -- President Woodrow Wilson to Congress, April 2, 1917
517. VHSSTO_160812_2323.JPG: Bringing them Home Frustrated by a lack of information, Evelyn Grubb and Mary Crowe -- wives of American prisoners of war who, at the time, lived in Virginia -- helped form the National League of Families of American Prisoners and Missing in Southeast Asia in 1967. The group began lobbying for the U.S. government to attain better accountability, treatment, and the speedy return of American servicemen.
518. VHSSTO_160812_2325.JPG: 1973 Dress worn by Phyllis Galanti during her reunion with Lt. Cdr. Paul Galanti
519. VHSSTO_160812_2329.JPG: Phyllis Eason Galanti b 14 January 1941 / d 23 April 2014 In June 1966, Lt. Cdr. Paul Galanti was shot down over North Vietnam. In Virginia, his wife Phyllis transformed from a shy navy wife into an activist who brought governmental, national, and international attention to the plight of POWs in Southeast Asia. She rallied massive local participation in a "Write Hanoi" campaign in 1971 and met with numerous world leaders.
520. VHSSTO_160812_2337.JPG: At seven years, Phyllis and Paul Galanti were reunited at Norfolk Naval Air Station on February 15, 1973.
521. VHSSTO_160812_2340.JPG: 1973 Notes written by Lt. Cdr. Paul Galanti on toilet paper while a prisoner of war
522. VHSSTO_160812_2344.JPG: Virginia Military Institute Founded in 1839, the Virginia Military Institute (VMI) is the oldest state-funded military school in the United States. Thomas Jonathan Jackson taught there from 1851 until the outbreak of the Civil War. VMI alumni continue to serve the nation, and 266 have achieved the rank of general or flag officer in the armed forces of the United States.
523. VHSSTO_160812_2347.JPG: Developing Military Leaders For more than four hundred years, Virginia has been the birthplace and training ground for some of our nation's most successful military leaders. It is home to one of the nation's oldest state-supported military colleges and numerous training facilities maintained by the U.S. Army, Navy, Marine Corps, Air Force, and Coast Guard.
524. VHSSTO_160812_2350.JPG: George S. Patton b 11 November 1885 / d 21 December 1945 Born in California, Patton had strong family ties to Virginia. He attended the Virginia Military Institute from 1903 to 1904 before transferring to West Point. Patton participated in the expedition against Pancho Villa in 1916, was an innovator and instructor of tank tactics during World War I, and led the Third U.S. Army to victory in France and Germany during World War II. George C. Marshall b 31 December 1880 / d 16 October 1959 Born in Uniontown, Pennsylvania, Marshall descended from an old Virginia family. He graduated from the Virginia Military Institute in 1901 and served as a planner of American training and operations during World War I. Marshall was the Army Chief of Staff throughout World War II, and his name is associated with the plan that promoted the postwar economic recovery of Europe.
525. VHSSTO_160812_2354.JPG: about 1945 Corncob pipe belonging to Gen. George S. Patton
526. VHSSTO_160812_2359.JPG: about 1945 Briefcase belonging to Gen. George S. Patton
527. VHSSTO_160812_2362.JPG: about 1940 Lap Desk belonging to Gen. George C. Marshall
528. VHSSTO_160812_2367.JPG: about 1940 Dog Tags belonging to George C. Marshall
529. VHSSTO_160812_2375.JPG: Crossroads of the Armed Forces World War I brought a navy base to Norfolk, a marine base to Quantico, and several army camps to Virginia. Federal expenditures during and after the World War II, however, cemented Virginia's role as a center of military logistics, training, and transportation. Today Virginia is home to the Pentagon, the CIA, and twenty-seven bases representing every branch of the armed services.
530. VHSSTO_160812_2378.JPG: National Security Across the Potomac River from Washington, Northern Virginia is home to the Pentagon and the CIA. One of the world's largest buildings, the Pentagon is the headquarters of the Department of Defense and employs 26,000 people. The Central Intelligence Agency -- created in 1947 -- furthers our national security by collecting and analyzing information and conducting covert activities directed by the President.
531. VHSSTO_160812_2380.JPG: about 1942 Norden Bombsight
532. VHSSTO_160812_2382.JPG: Norden Bombsight, about 1940 This analog computer increased the accuracy of bombing raids. In the 1920s, engineer Carl Norden worked to improve the accuracy of bombs dropped by aircraft. Initially tested at the navy proving grounds in King George County, his bombsight became standard for U.S. Army bombers used during the Second World War. By dialing in altitude, heading, direction, and wind speed, the computer calculated an aim point for the bombardier.
533. VHSSTO_160812_2385.JPG: Northern Virginia Region Evacuation Route Map
534. VHSSTO_160812_2392.JPG: 1959 Silver-plated trowel used to lay cornerstone of CIA Headquarters in Langley
535. VHSSTO_160812_2394.JPG: about 1960 Fallout Shelter sign formerly used on ground floor at Virginia Historical Society
536. VHSSTO_160812_2398.JPG: (back) about 1967 Canvas bunk from the troop transport ship USNS General Nelson M. Walker, which carried sailors, soldiers, and marines to Korea and Vietnam. Millions of men and women serving overseas during the last century have passed through Virginia.
537. VHSSTO_160812_2412.JPG: 11 -- Virginia is home to eleven recognized Native American tribes. 51.1% of people living in Virginia were born in another place. 1 in 5 Virginians are of African ancestry. As a result of our nation's participation in global affairs, Virginia's population has become increasingly diverse -- creating new definitions of what it means to be a Virginian. What has remained constant is Virginia's setting as a crossroads, where diverse cultures interact. Whether you are native born, a transplant from another state, or an immigrant from another country, you are part of that continuing story. 11.1% of Virginians speak a language other than English. 2.7% of Virginians claim multiple ethnicities.
538. VHSSTO_160812_2426.JPG: Wineries, Breweries, and Distilleries Alcoholic beverages have been made in Virginia for more than 400 years. Early settlers hoped that the colony would become a major source of wine, and for centuries Virginians have produced beer, cider, and "moonshine" for their own use or trade. In the 1970s, interest in wine-making revived, and in the early twenty-first century, craft brewing has become a thriving industry.
539. VHSSTO_160812_2434.JPG: That's Entertainment The first film made in Virginia was shot at Fort Myer in 1897 and featured the Sixth Cavalry. More than 100 years later, the commonwealth has been the setting and the subject of both big-budget and independent films. Likewise, Virginia's musical contribution to American culture has been diverse and includes blues, folk, hip-hop, and rock.
540. VHSSTO_160812_2438.JPG: Automotive Industry The first Virginia-made car, the "Dawson," was built in Basic City (now Waynesboro) in 1901. Cars were assembled in Richmond and Lynchburg in the 1910s and 1920s and in Norfolk after 1925, but relatively few Virginians have made their living making automobiles. Many more have been employed selling, fixing, fueling, and customizing them in dealerships, garages, and gas stations.
541. VHSSTO_160812_2442.JPG: What was this ring used for? Before the standardization of electric turn signals, drivers used the Devilseye Signal ring while driving at night. about 1920 Devileye Signal Ring Electric headlights, tail lights, and brake lights were commonplace by 1920, but self-cancelling turn signals were not standard in cars until 1945.
542. VHSSTO_160812_2456.JPG: Homegoods Industry At the turn of the twentieth century, furniture-making became one of the South's manufacturing mainstays, drawing on the region's plentiful natural resources and relatively inexpensive labor supply. Companies like Lane, Stanley, Pulaski, Rowe, and Bassett grew into national brands. In recent years, as imports have gained strength, foreign companies have located manufacturing or distribution facilities in Virginia.
543. VHSSTO_160812_2464.JPG: Virginia Agriculture As it has been for centuries, agriculture remains Virginia's largest industry, with farms covering one-third of its total land area. Livestock -- poultry and cattle -- yields the greatest income, but the commonwealth also produces large quantities of soybeans, tobacco, apples, and peanuts. Virginia's 250 wineries make it the fifth largest producer of grapes in the United States.
544. VHSSTO_160812_2466.JPG: A. H. Robins Company Over 125 years, the A. H. Robins Company grew into a pharmaceutical empire. In 1936, shortly after E. Claiborne Robins, Sr., graduated from pharmacy school, he took over the business begun by his father in 1906 and turned it into a pharmaceutical empire. In 1949, A. H. Robins Company introduced Robitussin and later Dimetapp and Chapstick. The company continued under family control until 1989 when it was sold to American Home Products.
545. VHSSTO_160812_2469.JPG: Reynolds Metals Company Reynolds Metals Company began producing aluminum foil for cigarette packaging in 1926 and moved its headquarters to Richmond in 1938. During World War II, Reynolds provided aluminum for aircraft. In peacetime the company pioneered a variety of applications for aluminum including building siding, beverage cans, a submarine, and of course, Reynolds Wrap. The company was acquired by Alcoa in 2000.
546. VHSSTO_160812_2472.JPG: 2013 Satellite The first satellite in United States history built by high school students. This cube satellite was the result of seven years of work by more than fifty students at Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology in Alexandria. TJ3Sat became the first human-made satellite in history built by high school students when it launched from NASA's Wallops Flight Facility on the Eastern Shore of Virginia on November 19, 2013.
547. VHSSTO_160812_2479.JPG: Mission to Mars On November 25, 2011, Mars Science Laboratory and its Curiosity rover began an eight month journey to Mars. For longer than ten years, more than 100 researchers at Langley Research Center supported NASA's mission to the Red Planet. They created sensors that measure heat and atmospheric pressure of entry into the Martian atmosphere. This data will inform the design of future spacecraft.
548. VHSSTO_160812_2488.JPG: Made in Virginia For more than 400 years, Virginians have been part of a global community -- exporting ideas, products, and culture to the rest of the world. Although the commonwealth has become more urban and industrial, the land continues to produce minerals and food. Its shores are home to many of the nation's finest shipyards. Its universities and laboratories share new discoveries, and artists perform for a worldwide audience.
549. VHSSTO_160812_2492.JPG: In 2013, Virginia agriculture employed 55,000 farm workers and generated $3.3 billion. The total value of computer chips made in Virginia is greater than that of exports of coal & tobacco
550. VHSSTO_160812_2507.JPG: Crossroads The thirty-four objects presented here -- on a platform that traverses the entire Story of Virginia -- introduce significance moments in the nation's development. The objects are highlights of the society's collection and collectively underscore an important theme: Virginians at the "crossroads" of American history. These objects and stories serve as touchstones: they give evidence that Virginians have assumed critical, decision-making roles that altered the course of our nation's history.
551. VHSSTO_160812_2511.JPG: Chestnut canoe, after 1700, found in King George County in 1996, fashioned with metal tools.
552. VHSSTO_160812_2518.JPG: Gold buttons worn by Pocahontas in England in 1616-1617 "Pocahontas" was a nickname for "Motoaka." (Pocahontas means little plaything.) When Matoaka converted to Christianity, she took the biblical name "Rebecca." Who was the read Pocahontas -- Motoaka or Rebecca? What were her motives? No written record survives that tells her story from her point of view.
553. VHSSTO_160812_2527.JPG: Bronze Sculpture of Pocahontas, by William Ordway Partridge, 1906-1922 1613: Pocahontas or Rebecca? In 1613, the English captured seventeen-year-old Pocahontas, a daughter of Paramount Chief Powhatan, and confined here at Jamestown. While there she decided to convert to Christianity and married colonist John Rolfe. Their union brought an end to the First Anglo-Powhatan War and inaugurated peace that was maintained for nearly a decade. The struggling settlement at Jamestown -- on the verge of extinction -- survived.
554. VHSSTO_160812_2534.JPG: John Jewell's bronze sculpture of Captain Meriwether Lewis and his dog Seaman, 2004 1804: The Corps of Discovery In 1804, President Thomas Jefferson commissioned his private secretary, Meriwether Lewis of Albemarle County, to explore and map the newly acquired Louisiana territory and establish an American presence there before European powers tried to claim it. Among the thirty-three members of the group was Lewis's Newfoundland dog Seaman, who proved useful in encounters with buffalos and bears.
555. VHSSTO_160812_2542.JPG: 1789 Creation of the District of Columbia On December 3, the Virginia General Assembly passed an act to provide land to serve as the nation's capital. Congress mandated that the site -- "not exceeding ten miles square" -- be located on the Maryland side of the Potomac River. President George Washington recommended the inclusion of Alexandria, Virginia. In 1846, Congress returned the land originally ceded by Virginia, but the proximity to the capital shaped much of Virginia's history.
556. VHSSTO_160812_2547.JPG: George Washington resigning commission as Commander in Chief of the Army in 1783, by R. Orlandi 1783: "King George" At the close of Revolutionary War, many Europeans expected George Washington to retain power and become king. Instead, like the ancient Roman general Cincinnatus, he relinquished power to return to his farm. The new American government did not become a monarchy. King George III of England reputedly remarked, "If he does that... he will be the greatest man in the world."
557. VHSSTO_160812_2558.JPG: Twenty shilling brass and copper plate, 1776 1776: Not Worth a Continental Without gold or silver reserves to support its currency, the Continental Congress and individual states -- including Virginia -- printed paper money to pay debts and maintain armies in the field. The currency became worthless, giving rise to the phrase "not worth a Continental." Debt threatened the new republic until a National Bank -- fiercely resisted by opponents of increased federal power -- stabilized the nation's credit.
558. VHSSTO_160812_2564.JPG: Bell from St. John's Church, Richmond, site of Patrick Henry's "Give me liberty or give me death!" speech 1775: Liberty or Death: Leaders in the Virginia House of Burgesses argued that man has a natural right to reject an unreasonable government. Patrick Henry argued that only colonial assemblies can make laws for the colonies. He urged Virginians to prepare for war with England. For them to do so, however, would be treason, punishable by hanging. His rallying cry, "Give me liberty or give me death!" has been repeated by oppressed people around the world.
559. VHSSTO_160812_2570.JPG: Gold medal awarded by the College of William and Mary for "superior skill in mathematics and natural philosophy." 1770: A New Emphasis on Education The College of William and Mary was founded to educate sons of the colonists and -- without success -- to "civilize" Indian youths. The wealthiest sons, however, were routinely sent to England for schooling. A decision was made to strengthen the college. In that spirit, gold medals were awarded "for the encouragement of merit" in various disciplines. Beneficiaries were such graduates as Thomas Jefferson, John Marshall, and James Monroe.
560. VHSSTO_160812_2577.JPG: Cruet stand for vinegar or oil, London, 1769-1770 1767: The Deprivation of American Freedom Following the Stamp Act, the English Parliament passed the Townshend Acts, which, in addition to paper, taxed tea and glass -- luxury objects. The cost of this cruet stands rose. The wealthy complained. In Virginia, George Washington wrote to George Mason, "Our lordly Masters in Great Britain will be satisfied with nothing less than the deprivation of American freedom." The colonies moved closer to revolution.
561. VHSSTO_160812_2584.JPG: Silver serving spoon inscribed "1766 Repeal of the American Stamp Act" 1765: Taxation without Representation: The Stamp Act To reduce its share of the cost of defending the American frontier, the English Parliament required that all official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets in America be taxed and stamped. In response, the colonists chose to boycott British goods, not because the tax was high but because without representation in Parliament they had no voice in the decision.
562. VHSSTO_160812_2596.JPG: Hand grenades found at Jamestown and used during Bacon's Rebellion, 1676 1676: The First American Revolution Governor William Berkeley distributed vast tracts of land to a circle of elite planters who faced economic problems when taxes soared and their sale of tobacco was restricted to English ports. Indian attacks prompted one planter, Nathaniel Bacon, to lead landless, impoverished whites -- who called themselves "commoners" -- in a revolt. They tossed grenades at Jamestown and burned it to the ground before Bacon died and the rebellion ended.
563. VHSSTO_160812_2605.JPG: Iron breastplate from the armory of the Tower of London; excavated at Jordan's Journey, Prince George County (1622-1640) 1622: Revenge and Extermination Following the massive 1622 attack on the English settlers by Native Americans, King James I provided weaponry from the Tower of London to help the settlers retake lost ground. "His Majestie hath bestowed upon us arms... such as against the Indians may be very useful," reported the Virginia Company. The company chose not to withdraw but urged "revenge" and the "extermination" of the native people.
564. VHSSTO_160812_2612.JPG: Iron wrist shackles, 1600-1700 1619: The Beginning of Slavery Acceptance of the first slave cargo at Point Comfort shaped the subsequent history of the nation. Gradually race-based slavery became entrenched in Virginia and throughout the American South. Twelve and half million Africans were enslaved and transported from Africa to North and South America -- 128,000 were brought to the Chesapeake Bay region against their will and in chains.
565. VHSSTO_160812_2626.JPG: "The Virginia Pacificator," 1861 1861: Virginia Pacificator Lorenzo Sibert of Augusta County designed and patented this repeating rifle, which could fire forty-eight shots without reloading. To judge from the inscriptions on its stock -- "The Virginia Pacificator" (peacemaker) and "the American Union forever" -- Sibert was one of many in the state who had hoped that Virginia's leaders might somehow resolve the recession crisis and keep the Union together. The gun was never put into production.
566. VHSSTO_160812_2632.JPG: Pen used by Valentine Southall to sign the Virginia Ordinance of Secession. Inserted into a holder made from the carriage of a gun that fired on Fort Sumter. 1861: The Secession of Virginia After seven Deep South states seceded and Confederate troops in Charleston fired on federal Fort Sumter, President Abraham Lincoln called for 75,000 troops to put down the rebellion. Officials in Richmond faced a decision: send militia units to fight fellow southerners or join the southern states in secession. Their choice to secede determined the magnitude, campaigns, and duration of the Civil War.
567. VHSSTO_160812_2641.JPG: Brass seal used to emboss business transactions of the Roanoke Navigation Company 1830: Canal Now, Pay Later In 1776 Virginia's trade was four times New York's, and canals were planned to link the James and Potomac rivers to markets beyond the mountains. By 1850, New York's commerce was 300 times greater. Partially funded canals lay incomplete in Virginia while a new technology -- the railroad -- offered faster and less expensive transportation. Virginians, heavily in debt, had over-invested in money-losing canal projects.
568. VHSSTO_160812_2644.JPG: U.S. Army Dragoon helmet 1831: Slave Revolt Nat Turner led an uprising of fellow slaves who murdered close to sixth of their white owners. Within a few days vigilante groups and army dragoons -- wearing helmets of the type exhibited here -- killed 100 to 200 blacks. Turner was convicted and hanged. State legislators who had been debating the abolition of slavery instead passed harsh new laws to restrict the education and movement of enslaved African Americans.
569. VHSSTO_160812_2653.JPG: Surveyor's transit made by Francis Watkins of London, 1746-1782 If the US capital had remained in Philadelphia -- where it was located in 1789 -- what would northern Virginia and eastern Virginia look like today?
570. VHSSTO_160812_2658.JPG: Mangled sword found at the site of the Crater 1864: Battle of The Crater To break the stalemate at Petersburg, Union troops tunneled under the Confederate lines and detonated four tons of gunpowder. More than 8,500 Union soldiers, including a division of US Colored Troops, charged into the resulting crater. After a brief but bitter struggle, the Union troops were repulsed. The campaign to capture Richmond and Petersburg lasted another eight months and resulted in more than 70,000 casualties.
571. VHSSTO_160812_2664.JPG: "Taking the Oath and Drawing Rations," by John Rogers Group, 1865-1866 1865: Taking the Oath In 1865, Virginians began rebuilding their devastated economy, but hundreds of thousands of former Confederates and newly emancipated African Americans needed food, shelter, and fuel. Union troops occupied many cities and provided rations and other aid to residents in need. Their presence was resented by whites, who were required to take a loyalty oath in order to receive aid, reopen businesses, vote, or obtain licenses.
572. VHSSTO_160812_2672.JPG: Presentation fireman's trumpet megaphone, 1872 1872: The Rebuilding of Richmond By 1872, Richmond was transforming into a modern American city. With more than twenty city blocks destroyed by the evacuation fire in 1865, the construction of cast iron fronts became popular additions to new brick buildings in the post-war years because of its strength and fire resistant qualities. The expansion of Richmond's fire department -- founded in 1858 -- accompanied the city's modernization.
573. VHSSTO_160812_2679.JPG: Ballot box from King William County, about 1900 1886: Power of The Vote Many former slaves became Republicans and elected nearly 100 African American to state office. Others joined with poor whites to form the Readjuster Party, which won control of the state legislature and elected a former Confederate to the US Senate. In 1886, white voters rejected both the Republicans and Readjusters in favor of the Democratic Party and initiated a century of government-sponsored racial discrimination.
574. VHSSTO_160812_2683.JPG: Robert E. Lee's portable dispatch writing case, after 1850 1865-1870: Apostle of Reunion Following Confederate defeat, Robert E. Lee opposed Radical Republicans who demanded punitive measures against the South and used his popularity to promote reconciliation between North and South. On this desk he wrote letters that were often reprinted in newspapers, suggesting that "all should unite in honest efforts to obliterate the effects of war."
575. VHSSTO_160812_2696.JPG: "Opposed to Suffrage" political button, about 1919 1919: Votes for Women? In 1919 an amendment was proposed by Congress giving women the right to vote. Virginia's Equal Suffrage League was among many nationwide organizations that had lobbied local governments, Congress, and the president enfranchise women. Virginia's General Assembly, however, was unmoved. Forty states ratified the 19th Amendment, and it became law in 1920. Virginia's legislature stubbornly refused to ratify it until 1952.
576. VHSSTO_160812_2705.JPG: Ku Klux Klan hood, early 20th century 1920: The Ku Klux Klan Because white leaders were able to establish supremacy by political means, Ku Klux Klan violence in Virginia was minimal compared to that in the Deep South. However, the Klan did initiate kidnappings, floggings, and at least one lynching. It was strongest in Virginia after World War I, when it added immigrants, Catholics, Jews, and organized labor to its list of "anti-American" groups.
577. VHSSTO_160812_2713.JPG: Golden spike ("the last spike"), silver mallet, and gold presentation cup used in ceremonies to mark completion of the Seaboard Air Line Railway 1900: Riding the Rails to Recovery Railroads were critical to Virginia's postwar economic revival. Factories in Richmond and Roanoke built locomotives, while lines carried coal, lumber, and tourists to new markets. John Skelton Williams of Richmond looked beyond the state to link Virginia with Florida by rail and thereby create additional commerce and jobs. The line he built was so flat and straight that it was called an "air line" railway.
578. VHSSTO_160812_2717.JPG: Cigar store figure with African America facial features and Native American dress, about 1880-1890 1924: Racial Identity This tobacco store figure evokes the history of enslaved African Americans who grew tobacco and the Indians who introduced it, it also reveals the stereotypes held by many whites of both as equally inferior. That perception allowed the Virginia General Assembly in 1924 to pass the Racial Integrity Act, which labeled both simply as "colored." As state records were altered, Virginia Indians were stripped of their identity.
579. VHSSTO_160812_2723.JPG: Limestone block from the burned section of the Pentagon 2001: Terrorist Attack on Pentagon, Arlington Minutes after two planes hit the World Trade Center in New York City, American Airlines Flight 77 departed Dulles International Airport. It was hijacked and crashed into the Pentagon, penetrating three of the building's five concentric rings. Sixty-four people on board died, as did 125 on the ground. Islamist extremists, enraged by US involvement in the Middle East, instigated the "war on terror" -- the longest war in American history.
580. VHSSTO_160812_2730.JPG: Boots made by Lucchese Bootmaker and given to Gov. Douglas Wilder when he delivered a commencement address at New Mexico State University 1989: Virginia Elects First African American Governor In 1989, Douglas Wilder became the first African American to be elected governor of any state in the nation. Wilder already had served Virginia in the senate and as lieutenant governor, working diligently as a liberal in a conservative legislature and promoting anti-crime legislation and a balanced budget. Following an ambitious "back roads" campaign across the state, Wilder was elected by a margin of only 7,000 votes.
581. VHSSTO_160812_2740.JPG: Award of Freedom from Harvard University belonging to Oliver Hill 1951-54: Turning Point of the Civil Rights Movement In 1951, Barbara Johns led 450 students in a protest against substandard conditions at their segregated school in Farmville. The NAACP tasked lawyers Oliver Hill and Spottswood Robinson to bring suit against Prince Edward County. By 1954, the case became part of Brown v. Board of Education, and the US Supreme Court declared unanimously that "separate but equal" schools were unconstitutional.
582. VHSSTO_160812_2748.JPG: Glasses, kufi cap, and Award of Freedom from Harvard University belonging to Oliver Hill
583. VHSSTO_160812_2755.JPG: Glasses belonging to Oliver Hill
584. VHSSTO_160812_2756.JPG: Kufi cap belonging to Oliver Hill
585. VHSSTO_160812_2759.JPG: Gas masks from World War I in 1917 and Operation Iraqi Freedom in 2003 1917: Facing the Horrors of War American involvement in global conflicts began in 1917, and Virginians served and sacrificed in all the major wars of the century that followed. Among the horrors they encouraged -- and perhaps the most terrifying -- was poison gas. Although banned by western nations in 1899, it is still used today. Most recently, dictators in Iraq and Syria have released poison gas to kill thousands of civilians unprotected by masks.
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Description of Subject Matter: From http://www.vahistorical.org/what-you-can-see/story-virginia/explore-story-virginia

This award-winning exhibition interprets 16,000 years of Virginia history—from the earliest Native American artifacts to life in the state at the beginning of the twenty-first century. Visitors can learn about the cultural and historical transformations of the commonwealth as they travel from one gallery to another. Enjoy exploring the Story of Virginia.

16,000 BCE to 1622 CE

At the time of the great northern glaciers, Native Americans followed the game they hunted to Virginia. Ten thousand years later, as the cold of the Ice Age gave way to a warmer, drier climate, they relied also on foraging and farming. After about 900 CE they settled into villages that united into chiefdoms. In 1607, in pursuit of opportunity in a new world, English settlers intruded into an eastern Virginia chiefdom of thirty-two tribes (15,000 to 20,000 people). Its leader then was Wahunsenacawh, whom the new settlers called by his title, Powhatan.

1622 to 1763

The colony prospered. Tobacco—grown by indentured servants and enslaved Africans—sustained the economy. The first popularly elected legislative body in the New World was established. Following the failed Indian uprising in 1622 and on orders from London, the native peoples were “removed” and reduced in number to 3,000 by a “War of Extermination.” During the next hundred years, the remainder of Virginia’s population expanded a hundred fold. Social inequalities, however, and frontier conflicts with the French and with Indians made this distant dominion increasingly difficult to govern from London.

1763 to 1825

British taxation—introduced to pay for a British military presence in America—was unexpected by the Virginia gentry and resented. Those Americans began to view British policy as a plot against their liberty. They played leading roles in the Continental Congresses that debated independence, in the fighting of the American Rev ...More...
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Directly Related Pages: Other pages with content (VA -- Richmond -- Virginia Museum of History and Culture (VMHC) -- Exhibit: Story of Virginia) directly related to this one: [Display ALL photos on one page]:
- 2021_VA_VHS_Story: VA -- Richmond -- Virginia Museum of History and Culture (VMHC) -- Exhibit: Story of Virginia (17 photos from 2021)
- 2015_VA_VHS_Story: VA -- Richmond -- Virginia Museum of History and Culture (VMHC) -- Exhibit: Story of Virginia (being redone) (6 photos from 2015)
- 2010_VA_VHS_Story: VA -- Richmond -- Virginia Museum of History and Culture (VMHC) -- Exhibit: Story of Virginia (199 photos from 2010)
Same Subject: Click on this link to see coverage of items having the same subject: [Museums (History)] [Virginia Museum of History and Culture] [Display ALL Virginia Museum of History and Culture photos]
2016 photos: Seven relatively short trips this year: two Civil War Trust conference (Gettysburg, PA and West Point, NY, with a side-trip to New York City), my 11th consecutive San Diego Comic-Con trip (including sites in Utah, Nevada, and California), a quick trip to Michigan for Uncle Wayne's funeral, two additional trips to New York City, and a Civil Rights site trip to Alabama during the November elections. Being in places where people died to preserve the rights of minority voters made the Trumputin election even more depressing. Equipment this year: I continued to use my Fuji XS-1 cameras but, depending on the event, I also used a Nikon D7000. Number of photos taken this year: just over 610,000.
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	Embarkations		Disembarkations
Documented	10,160,000	81%	8,763,000	82%
Estimated	2,361,000	19%	1,940,000	18%
Total	12,521,000		10,703,000