BGuthrie Photos: DC -- Natl Air and Space Museum -- Gallery 100: (a) Milestones of Flight

DC -- Natl Air and Space Museum -- Gallery 100: (a) Milestones of Flight:

Bruce Guthrie Photos Home Page: [Click here] to go to Bruce Guthrie Photos home page.

Description of Pictures: The updated gallery is prepared and opened. Later, the John Glenn tribute after his death is shown.

Recognize anyone? If you recognize specific folks (or other stuff) and I haven't labeled them, please identify them for the world. Click the little pencil icon

underneath the file name (just above the picture). Spammers need not apply.

Slide Show: Want to see the pictures as a slide show? [Slideshow]

Copyrights: All pictures were taken by amateur photographer Bruce Guthrie (me!) who retains copyright on them. Free for non-commercial use with attribution. See the [Creative Commons] definition of what this means. "Photos (c) Bruce Guthrie" is fine for attribution. (Commercial use folks including AI scrapers can of course contact me.) Feel free to use in publications and pages with attribution but you don't have permission to sell the photos themselves. A free copy of any printed publication using any photographs is requested. Descriptive text, if any, is from a mixture of sources, quite frequently from signs at the location or from official web sites; copyrights, if any, are retained by their original owners.

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Specific picture descriptions: Photos above with "i" icons next to the bracketed sequence numbers (e.g. "[1] ") are described as follows:
1. GAL100_160406_093.JPG: SpaceShip One This privately built, piloted craft reached space and returned safely, expanding opportunities for commercial spaceflight. In 2004, SpaceShipOne won the $10 million Ansari X Prize as the first privately developed space vehicle capable of carrying three people into suborbital spaceflight (up to 100 kilometers/62 miles) and repeating the feat within two weeks. Microsoft cofounder Paul Allen funded SpaceShipOne, and Burt Rutan and Scaled Composites designed and built it. With two successful flights piloted by Mike Melvill on September 29, 2004, and Brian Binnie on October 4, SpaceShipOne claimed the prize. The success of SpaceShipOne inspired the creation of Virgin Galactic, a company founded to add private suborbital tourist flights to the existing world of commercial space. it also led NASA to develop public-private partnerships for new spacecraft. Before SpaceShipOne won the Ansari X Prize, no privately developed and operated vehicle achieved spaceflight. Since then, several firms have developed spacecraft for different kinds of commercial space travel. "Affordable private space travel opens a new era in human history. We'll go into orbit. We'll go to eh Moon. This business has no limits." -- Sir Richard Branson
2. GAL100_160406_100.JPG: The Ansari X Prize: US entrepreneur Peter Diamandis founded the X Prize Foundation in 1995 to inspire space development just as the Orteig Prize, won by Charles Lindbergh in 1927, spurred the airline industry. Iranian American business partners Anousheh and Amir Ansari provided the prize's $10 million. Anousheh also flew to the International Space Station in 2006, a private trip on a Russian Soyuz spacecraft brokered by Space Adventures, Ltd. Celebrating the Ansari X Prize: Hamid ANsari, pilot Brian Binnie, prize co-funded Anousheh Ansari, X Prize Foundation founder Peter Diamondis, and prize co-funder Amir Ansari. Sir Richard Branson, Virgin Galactic owner, Burt Rutan, SpaceShipOne designer, and Paul Allen, SpaceShipOne funder, watch SpaceShipOne's descent. Virgin Galactic, a commerical spaceflight company, developed a scaled-up version of SpaceShipOne called SpaceShipTwo.
3. GAL100_160406_103.JPG: A larger aircraft, White Knight, carried the spacecraft to launch altitude. Upon release, SpaceShipOne's rocket engine powered it into space. Its jointed wings pivoted into a "feathered" position (as they are displayed here) to steady its flight back into the atmosphere. Book Your Place in Space! People have long dreamed of buying a ticket for a flight into space. Beginning in 1964, 93,000 people joined a waiting list for a "First Moon Flights" club with Pan American World Airways, which hoped to begin flights in 2000. Stanley Kubrick's 1968 film "2001: A Space Odyssey" showed a Pan Am "space clipper" making regular flights to an orbital space station. Space artist Robert McCall painted promotional art for the film 2001: A Space Odyssey and a custom mural by the south entrance of the National Air and Space Museum in the Boeing Milestones of Flight Hall. Issued at no cost, Pan Am's "First Moon Flights" cards originated when Austrian journalist Gerhard Pistor asked a travel agency for a Moon flight, and Pan Am accepted his reservation. In the late 1960s, 20-year-old Jeff Gates booked flights for himself and his future wife.
4. GAL100_160406_107.JPG: Ryan NYP Spirit of St. Louis Charles Lindbergh's transatlantic flight made him a worldwide celebrity and promoted investment in American aviation.
5. GAL100_160406_113.JPG: On May 20-21, 1927, Charles A. Lindbergh piloted his Ryan NYP Spirit of St. Louis on the first solo, nonstop flight across the Atlantic. The former air mail pilot and barnstormer flew from New York to Paris in 33-1/2 hours, a distance of about 5,800 kilometers (3,610 miles). A crowd of 150,000 greeted him when he landed at Le Bourget Airport. This stunning achievement highlighted the potential of long-distance flight and produced the "Lindbergh boom" -- aircraft industry stocks rose in value, and interest in commercial aviation skyrocketed in the United States. "For me the Spirit of St. Louis was a lens focused on the future, a forerunner of mechanisms that would conquer time and space." -- Charles A. Lindbergh How did Lindbergh see where he was going without a windshield? He turned the plane and looked out the side windows. He also used a periscope on the left side of the aircraft to see ahead. Before Lindbergh's transatlantic flight, few people flew. His achievement revealed the huge potential of air travel and afterward promoted the vast expansion of the US airline industry.
6. GAL100_160406_118.JPG: With a fabric-covered wooden wing, a steel-tube fuselage, and a dependable Wright J-5C Whirlwind air-cooled engine, the Spirit of St. Louis was built for reliability. Lindbergh named the plane in honor of his supporters in St. Louis, Missouri, who paid for the aircraft, "NYP" stands for "New York-Paris." Unwanted Fame: Lindbergh became a modern international celebrity, preyed upon by the media, immense crowds welcomed him in Europe, the United States, and Latin America. Fame engulfed him. His image and that of his aircraft appeared on almost every consumer object imaginable. His celebrity endured, but at great personal cost, while his social and political beliefs turned him into a polarizing figure. Lindbergh was honored with a ticker tape parade in New York City after he returned to the United States. Entrepreneurs capitalized on Lindbergh's fame by selling souvenirs and memorabilia. Examples are in the Barron Hilton Pioneers of Flight Gallery upstairs and the Stanley King Collection exhibit at the Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.
7. GAL100_160406_124.JPG: Lunar Module LM-2 This lunar module represents one of humanity's greatest achievements: landing people on another heavenly body.
8. GAL100_160406_129.JPG: Between 1969 and 1972, six lunar modules essentially identical to this one landed a total of 12 American astronauts on the Moon. This lunar module, LM-2, never flew in space. It was built for testing in low Earth orbit but was actually used on Earth to measure the LM's ability to withstand the forces of landing on the Moon. It is configured as LM-5, Apollo 11's lunar module Eagle. The lunar module also symbolizes the United States' triumph in the space race with the Soviet Union, part of the competition for technological supremacy and international prestige during the Cold War of 1945-91. "Houston, Tranquility Base her. The Eagle has landed." -- Neil Armstrong, July 20, 1969 Notice the LM-2's sturdy legs, built to withstand a possible hard landing on the Moon. The vehicle's body was quite fragile and as light as possible. To save weight, it had no seats; the astronauts stood.
9. GAL100_160406_132.JPG: The Space Race: Human voyages to the Moon followed President John F. Kennedy's challenge issued on May 25, 1961. His decision to attempt a lunar landing followed a series of first achievements in space by the USSR and a recognition that the Soviets were ahead of the United States in some aspects of rocket technology. Kennedy's advisors suggested that, with a dedicated effort, the United States could beat the Soviet Union to the Moon by the end of the decade. Addressing a joint session of Congress, President Kennedy requests congressional support to send humans to the Moon and back. Behind him are Vice President Lyndon Johnson and Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn. An estimated 500 million people watched as Apollo 11 achieved Kennedy's goal of a human landing on the Moon, as Neil Armstrong, followed by Buzz Aldrin, stepped onto the lunar surface on July 20, 1969.
10. GAL100_160406_136.JPG: The LM was designed to operate only in the vacuum of space, so it did not need aerodynamic surfaces or streamlining. It hardly resembles the spacecraft imagined in science fiction, but it accomplished the goal for which it was built. Lunar Orbit Rendezvous: Apollo spacecraft carried a crew of three. The lunar module orbited the Moon joined to a command and service module (CSM). The CSM remained in orbit with one astronaut, while the others flew the LM to the Moon's surface and back. All three astronauts returned to Earth in the command module, the only module that could survive reentry. Six LM descent stages remain on the Moon. NASA aerospace engineer John Houbolt explains lunar orbit rendezvous, the plan chosen for the Apollo missions. It required two spacecraft: a lander and an orbiter. By having separate modules to handle landing on the Moon and reentry to Earth, NASA saved weight. Without the lunar orbit rendezvous method, lunar landings would have required a much larger booster or two separate launches.
11. GAL100_160406_144.JPG: Boeing Milestones of Flight Hall Opening July 2016 Lunar Module LM-2 This lunar module represents one of humanity's greatest achievements; landing people on another heavenly body. Between 1969 and 1972, six lunar modules essentially identical to this one landed a total of 12 American astronauts on the Moon. This lunar module, LM-2, never flew in space. It was built for testing in low Earth orbit but was actually used on Earth to measure the LM's ability to withstand the forces of landing on the Moon. It is configured as LM-5, Apollo 11's lunar module Eagle. The lunar module also symbolizes the United States' greatest triumph in the space race with the Soviet Union, part of the competition for technological supremacy and international prestige during the Cold War of 1945-91.
12. GAL100_160528_025.JPG: Lunar Module LM-2 This lunar module represents one of humanity's greatest achievements; landing people on another heavenly body. Between 1969 and 1972, six lunar modules essentially identical to this one landed a total of 12 American astronauts on the Moon. This lunar module, LM-2, never flew in space. It was built for testing in low Earth orbit but was actually used on Earth to measure the LM's ability to withstand the forces of landing on the Moon. It is configured as LM-5, Apollo 11's lunar module Eagle. The lunar module also symbolizes the United States' greatest triumph in the space race with the Soviet Union, part of the competition for technological supremacy and international prestige during the Cold War of 1945-91. "Houston, Tranquility Base her. The Eagle has landed." -- Neil Armstrong, July 20, 1969 Notice the LM-2's sturdy legs, built to withstand a possible hard landing on the Moon. The vehicle's body was quite fragile and as light as possible. To save weight, it had no seats; the astronauts stood. The Space Race: Human voyages to the Moon followed President John F. Kennedy's challenge issued on May 25, 1961. His decision to attempt a lunar landing followed a series of first achievements in space by the USSR and a recognition that the Soviets were ahead of the United States in some aspects of rocket technology. Kennedy's advisors suggested that, with a dedicated effort, the United States could beat the Soviet Union to the Moon by the end of the decade. Addressing a joint session of Congress, President Kennedy requests congressional support to send humans to the Moon and back. Behind him are Vice President Lyndon Johnson and Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn. An estimated 500 million people watched as Apollo 11 achieved Kennedy's goal of a human landing on the Moon, as Neil Armstrong, followed by Buzz Aldrin, stepped onto the lunar surface on July 20, 1969.
13. GAL100_160528_029.JPG: The Space Race: Human voyages to the Moon followed President John F. Kennedy's challenge issued on May 25, 1961. His decision to attempt a lunar landing followed a series of first achievements in space by the USSR and a recognition that the Soviets were ahead of the United States in some aspects of rocket technology. Kennedy's advisors suggested that, with a dedicated effort, the United States could beat the Soviet Union to the Moon by the end of the decade. Addressing a joint session of Congress, President Kennedy requests congressional support to send humans to the Moon and back. Behind him are Vice President Lyndon Johnson and Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn. An estimated 500 million people watched as Apollo 11 achieved Kennedy's goal of a human landing on the Moon, as Neil Armstrong, followed by Buzz Aldrin, stepped onto the lunar surface on July 20, 1969. The LM was designed to operate only in the vacuum of space, so it did not need aerodynamic surfaces or streamlining. It hardly resembles the spacecraft imagined in science fiction, but it accomplished the goal for which it was built. Lunar Orbit Rendezvous: Apollo spacecraft carried a crew of three. The lunar module orbited the Moon joined to a command and service module (CSM). The CSM remained in orbit with one astronaut, while the others flew the LM to the Moon's surface and back. All three astronauts returned to Earth in the command module, the only module that could survive reentry. Six LM descent stages remain on the Moon. NASA aerospace engineer John Houbolt explains lunar orbit rendezvous, the plan chosen for the Apollo missions. It required two spacecraft: a lander and an orbiter. By having separate modules to handle landing on the Moon and reentry to Earth, NASA saved weight. Without the lunar orbit rendezvous method, lunar landings would have required a much larger booster or two separate launches.
14. GAL100_160704_025.JPG: Moon Rock Touching a real piece of the Moon connects you to humanity's exploration of space. Touch a piece of the moon! The crew of Apollo 17, the last Apollo lunar mission, brought this sample back to Earth in December 1972. The six Apollo missions that landed on the Moon between July 1969 and December 1972 returned a total of about 382 kilograms (840 pounds) of rock and soil, which provided geologists with detailed evidence of the Moon's history and composition. "We came in peace for all mankind." -- Inscription on a plaque left on the moon by Apollo 11 astronauts, July 1969 Doing Science on the Moon: Previous Apollo missions landed at different and even-more challenging sites on the Moon, and the crews were trained to select rocks as sample specimens to be returned to Earth. For the final Apollo mission, NASA selected a geologist to be part of the crew. Researchers are still learning new things from the Moon rocks brought back by Apollo astronauts. Lunar Diplomacy: In addition to the scientific samples, Apollo 17 astronaut Harrison Schmitt chose one rock to be divided and distributed to foreign governments, the 50 US states, and US territories. While still on the Moon, mission commander Gene Cernan remarked that Apollo had opened a challenge for future generations. "The door is now cracked, but the promise of the future lies in the young people, not just in America, but the young people all over the world learning to live and learning to work together." Before the 1960s, the Moon was literally unreachable. Since 1969, people know the Moon as a real destination, a fundamental change in humanity's perspective. Moon Mural: This radar image of the Moon, collected using the giant radio telescopes at Arecibo in Puerto Rico and Green Bank, West Virginia, shows the north pole (lower center), bright reflections from rocky impact craters, and darker reflections from ancient lava flows.
15. GAL100_160704_030.JPG: Moon Rock Touching a real piece of the Moon connects you to humanity's exploration of space. Touch a piece of the moon! The crew of Apollo 17, the last Apollo lunar mission, brought this sample back to Earth in December 1972. The six Apollo missions that landed on the Moon between July 1969 and December 1972 returned a total of about 382 kilograms (840 pounds) of rock and soil, which provided geologists with detailed evidence of the Moon's history and composition. "We came in peace for all mankind." -- Inscription on a plaque left on the moon by Apollo 11 astronauts, July 1969 Before the 1960s, the Moon was literally unreachable. Since 1969, people know the Moon as a real destination, a fundamental change in humanity's perspective. Moon Mural: This radar image of the Moon, collected using the giant radio telescopes at Arecibo in Puerto Rico and Green Bank, West Virginia, shows the north pole (lower center), bright reflections from rocky impact craters, and darker reflections from ancient lava flows.
16. GAL100_160704_035.JPG: Doing Science on the Moon: Previous Apollo missions landed at different and even-more challenging sites on the Moon, and the crews were trained to select rocks as sample specimens to be returned to Earth. For the final Apollo mission, NASA selected a geologist to be part of the crew. Researchers are still learning new things from the Moon rocks brought back by Apollo astronauts. Lunar Diplomacy: In addition to the scientific samples, Apollo 17 astronaut Harrison Schmitt chose one rock to be divided and distributed to foreign governments, the 50 US states, and US territories. While still on the Moon, mission commander Gene Cernan remarked that Apollo had opened a challenge for future generations. "The door is now cracked, but the promise of the future lies in the young people, not just in America, but the young people all over the world learning to live and learning to work together." The Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter took photos of the Apollo 17 landing site from lunar orbit in 2011. You can see the tracks of the lunar rover, astronaut footpaths, and the lunar module descent stage. Apollo 17 astronaut Harrison Schmitt, a geologist by training, examines a large boulder. The Apollo 17 crew (clockwise from left) geologist/lunar module pilot Harrison Schmitt, command module pilot Ronald Evans, and mission commander Gene Cernan. This is a slice of the Moon rock after it was cut. The Museum's touchable sample is the triangular portion on the left (labeled with a star).
17. GAL100_160704_039.JPG: The touchable Moon rock was cut from this larger piece of basalt, an iron-rich volcanic rock, found in the Valley of Taurus-Littrow.
18. GAL100_160704_049.JPG: Ryan NYP Spirit of St. Louis Charles Lindbergh's transatlantic flight made him a worldwide celebrity and promoted investment in American aviation. On May 20-21, 1927, Charles A. Lindbergh piloted his Ryan NYP Spirit of St. Louis on the first solo, nonstop flight across the Atlantic. The former air mail pilot and barnstormer flew from New York to Paris in 33-1/2 hours, a distance of about 5,800 kilometers (3,610 miles). A crowd of 150,000 greeted him when he landed at Le Bourget Airport. This stunning achievement highlighted the potential of long-distance flight and produced the "Lindbergh boom" -- aircraft industry stocks rose in value, and interest in commercial aviation skyrocketed in the United States. "For me the Spirit of St. Louis was a lens focused on the future, a forerunner of mechanisms that would conquer time and space." -- Charles A. Lindbergh Dramatic Demonstration: By flying directly over the Atlantic Ocean from one large city to another, Lindbergh demonstrated that vast distances were no longer barriers, and that the potential for long-distance air travel was quickly becoming a reality. When Lindbergh landed in Paris, the American public became enamored with him and with aviation. The air age had arrived. Unwanted Fame: Lindbergh became a modern international celebrity, preyed upon by the media. Immense crowds welcomed him in Europe, the United States, and Latin America. Fame engulfed him. His image and that of his aircraft appeared on almost every consumer object imaginable. His celebrity endured, but at great personal cost, while his social and political beliefs turned him into a polarizing figure. How did Lindbergh see where he was going without a windshield? He turned the plane and looked out the side windows. He also used a periscope on the left side of the aircraft to see ahead. Before Lindbergh's transatlantic flight, few people flew. His achievement revealed the huge potential of air travel and afterward promoted the vast expansion of the U.S. airline industry. Lindbergh's epic flight was his first attempt to win the $25,000 prize offered by New York hotel owner Raymond Orteig to the first aviator to fly an aircraft directly across the Atlantic between New York and Paris. At 7:52am on May 20, 1927, the Spirit of St. Louis rolled down muddy Roosevelt Field on its way to Paris. Lindbergh landed 33-1/2 hours later, having stayed awake for 24 hours before he took off. Lindbergh was honored with a ticker tape parade in New York City after he returned to the United States. Entrepreneurs capitalized on Lindergh's fame by selling souvenirs and memorabilia. Examples are in the Barron Hilton Pioneers of Flight Gallery upstairs and the Stanley King Collection exhibit at the Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center.
19. GAL100_160704_055.JPG: Ryan NYP Spirit of St. Louis Charles Lindbergh's transatlantic flight made him a worldwide celebrity and promoted investment in American aviation. On May 20-21, 1927, Charles A. Lindbergh piloted his Ryan NYP Spirit of St. Louis on the first solo, nonstop flight across the Atlantic. The former air mail pilot and barnstormer flew from New York to Paris in 33-1/2 hours, a distance of about 5,800 kilometers (3,610 miles). A crowd of 150,000 greeted him when he landed at Le Bourget Airport. This stunning achievement highlighted the potential of long-distance flight and produced the "Lindbergh boom" -- aircraft industry stocks rose in value, and interest in commercial aviation skyrocketed in the United States. "For me the Spirit of St. Louis was a lens focused on the future, a forerunner of mechanisms that would conquer time and space." -- Charles A. Lindbergh How did Lindbergh see where he was going without a windshield? He turned the plane and looked out the side windows. He also used a periscope on the left side of the aircraft to see ahead. Before Lindbergh's transatlantic flight, few people flew. His achievement revealed the huge potential of air travel and afterward promoted the vast expansion of the U.S. airline industry.
20. GAL100_160704_059.JPG: Dramatic Demonstration: By flying directly over the Atlantic Ocean from one large city to another, Lindbergh demonstrated that vast distances were no longer barriers, and that the potential for long-distance air travel was quickly becoming a reality. When Lindbergh landed in Paris, the American public became enamored with him and with aviation. The air age had arrived. Lindbergh's epic flight was his first attempt to win the $25,000 prize offered by New York hotel owner Raymond Orteig to the first aviator to fly an aircraft directly across the Atlantic between New York and Paris. At 7:52am on May 20, 1927, the Spirit of St. Louis rolled down muddy Roosevelt Field on its way to Paris. Lindbergh landed 33-1/2 hours later, having stayed awake for 24 hours before he took off.
21. GAL100_160704_062.JPG: The LM was designed to operate only in the vacuum of space, so it did not need aerodynamic surfaces or streamlining. It hardly resembles the spacecraft imagined in science fiction, but it accomplished the goal for which it was built.With a fabric-covered wooden wing, a steel-tube fuselage, and a dependable Wright J-5C Whirlwind air-cooled engine, the Spirit of St. Louis was built for reliability. Lindbergh named the plan in honor of his supporters in St. Louis, Missouri, who paid for the aircraft. "NYP" stands for "New York-Paris." Lunar Orbit Rendezvous: Apollo spacecraft carried a crew of three. The lunar module orbited the Moon joined to a command and service module (CSM). The CSM remained in orbit with one astronaut, while the others flew the LM to the Moon's surface and back. All three astronauts returned to Earth in the command module, the only module that could survive reentry. Six LM desent stages remain on the Moon. NASA aerospace engineer John Houbolt explains lunar orbit rendezvous, the plan chosen for the Apollo missions. It required two spacecraft: a lander and an orbiter. By having separate modules to handle landing on the Moon and reentry to Earth, NASA saved weight. Without the lunar orbit rendezvous method, lunar landings would have required a much larger booster or two separate launches.
22. GAL100_160704_078.JPG: Lunar Module LM-2 This lunar module represents one of humanity's greatest achievements; landing people on another heavenly body. Between 1969 and 1972, six lunar modules essentially identical to this one landed a total of 12 American astronauts on the Moon. This lunar module, LM-2, never flew in space. It was built for testing in low Earth orbit but was actually used on Earth to measure the LM's ability to withstand the forces of landing on the Moon. It is configured as LM-5, Apollo 11's lunar module Eagle. The lunar module also symbolizes the United States' greatest triumph in the space race with the Soviet Union, part of the competition for technological supremacy and international prestige during the Cold War of 1945-91. "Houston, Tranquility Base her. The Eagle has landed." -- Neil Armstrong, July 20, 1969 The Space Race: Human voyages to the Moon followed President John F. Kennedy's challenge issued on May 25, 1961. His decision to attempt a lunar landing followed a series of first achievements in space by the USSR and a recognition that the Soviets were ahead of the United States in some aspects of rocket technology. Kennedy's advisors suggested that, with a dedicated effort, the United States could beat the Soviet Union to the Moon by the end of the decade. Lunar Orbit Rendezvous: Apollo spacecraft carried a crew of three. The lunar module orbited the Moon joined to a command and service module (CSM). The CSM remained in orbit with one astronaut, while the others flew the LM to the Moon's surface and back. All three astronauts returned to Earth in the command module, the only module that could survive reentry. Six LM descent stages remain on the Moon. Notice the LM-2's sturdy legs, built to withstand a possible hard landing on the Moon. The vehicle's body was quite fragile and as light as possible. To save weight, it had no seats; the astronauts stood. Addressing a joint session of Congress, President Kennedy requests congressional support to send humans to the Moon and back. Behind him are Vice President Lyndon Johnson and Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn. An estimated 500 million people watched as Apollo 11 achieved Kennedy's goal of a human landing on the Moon, as Neil Armstrong, followed by Buzz Aldrin, stepped onto the lunar surface on July 20, 1969. This display recreates that moment. NASA aerospace engineer John Houbolt explains lunar orbit rendezvous, the plan chosen for the Apollo missions. It required two spacecraft: a lander and an orbiter. By having separate modules to handle landing on the Moon and reentry to Earth, NASA saved weight. Without the lunar orbit rendezvous method, lunar landings would have required a much larger booster or two separate launches. The LM was designed to operate only in the vacuum of space, so it did not need aerodynamic surfaces or streamlining. It hardly resembles the spacecraft imagined in science fiction, but it accomplished the goal for which it was built.
23. GAL100_160704_084.JPG: Lunar Module LM-2 This lunar module represents one of humanity's greatest achievements; landing people on another heavenly body. Between 1969 and 1972, six lunar modules essentially identical to this one landed a total of 12 American astronauts on the Moon. This lunar module, LM-2, never flew in space. It was built for testing in low Earth orbit but was actually used on Earth to measure the LM's ability to withstand the forces of landing on the Moon. It is configured as LM-5, Apollo 11's lunar module Eagle. The lunar module also symbolizes the United States' greatest triumph in the space race with the Soviet Union, part of the competition for technological supremacy and international prestige during the Cold War of 1945-91. "Houston, Tranquility Base her. The Eagle has landed." -- Neil Armstrong, July 20, 1969 Notice the LM-2's sturdy legs, built to withstand a possible hard landing on the Moon. The vehicle's body was quite fragile and as light as possible. To save weight, it had no seats; the astronauts stood.
24. GAL100_160704_087.JPG: The Space Race: Human voyages to the Moon followed President John F. Kennedy's challenge issued on May 25, 1961. His decision to attempt a lunar landing followed a series of first achievements in space by the USSR and a recognition that the Soviets were ahead of the United States in some aspects of rocket technology. Kennedy's advisors suggested that, with a dedicated effort, the United States could beat the Soviet Union to the Moon by the end of the decade. Addressing a joint session of Congress, President Kennedy requests congressional support to send humans to the Moon and back. Behind him are Vice President Lyndon Johnson and Speaker of the House Sam Rayburn. An estimated 500 million people watched as Apollo 11 achieved Kennedy's goal of a human landing on the Moon, as Neil Armstrong, followed by Buzz Aldrin, stepped onto the lunar surface on July 20, 1969. This display recreates that moment.
25. GAL100_160704_090.JPG: The LM was designed to operate only in the vacuum of space, so it did not need aerodynamic surfaces or streamlining. It hardly resembles the spacecraft imagined in science fiction, but it accomplished the goal for which it was built. Lunar Orbit Rendezvous: Apollo spacecraft carried a crew of three. The lunar module orbited the Moon joined to a command and service module (CSM). The CSM remained in orbit with one astronaut, while the others flew the LM to the Moon's surface and back. All three astronauts returned to Earth in the command module, the only module that could survive reentry. Six LM descent stages remain on the Moon. NASA aerospace engineer John Houbolt explains lunar orbit rendezvous, the plan chosen for the Apollo missions. It required two spacecraft: a lander and an orbiter. By having separate modules to handle landing on the Moon and reentry to Earth, NASA saved weight. Without the lunar orbit rendezvous method, lunar landings would have required a much larger booster or two separate launches.
26. GAL100_160704_098.JPG: Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the moon July 1969, A.D. We came in peace for all mankind. Neil A. Armstrong, Astronaut Michael Collins, Astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin, Jr., Astronaut Richard Nixon, President, United States of America
27. GAL100_160704_102.JPG: Lunar Module LM-2 This lunar module represents one of humanity's greatest achievements; landing people on another heavenly body. Between 1969 and 1972, six lunar modules essentially identical to this one landed a total of 12 American astronauts on the Moon. This lunar module, LM-2, never flew in space. It was built for testing in low Earth orbit but was actually used on Earth to measure the LM's ability to withstand the forces of landing on the Moon. It is configured as LM-5, Apollo 11's lunar module Eagle. The lunar module also symbolizes the United States' greatest triumph in the space race with the Soviet Union, part of the competition for technological supremacy and international prestige during the Cold War of 1945-91. "We would like to give special thanks to all those Americans who built the spacecraft; who did the construction, design, the tests, and put their hearts and all their abilities into those craft. To those people tonight, we give a special thank you." -- Neil Armstrong, July 23, 1969 Integrated Circuits for Apollo: The newly invented integrated circuit, or silicon "chip," was among the many innovations in the lunar module's onboard computer. The astronauts used the computer to guide the LM to a safe landing. Silicon chips allowed the computer to meet the LM's weight, size, and power requirements. Grumman Workers: Lead engineer Tom Kelly's team at Grumman Aircraft on Long Island, New York, spent nine years engineering and building lunar modules for NASA. Like other workers who contributed to the Apollo program, they took great pride in their work. For Apollo 17, the final lunar landing in 1972, some "Grummies" hung a sign on the rocket: "This may be our last LM but it will be our best." Neil Armstrong's and Buzz Aldrin's walk on the Moon was a worldwide television event. What other global events have you watched? Before the Apollo missions landed humans on the Moon, walking on another heavenly body was a dream, possible only in fiction. Apollo 11 made it a reality. Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin deploys a scientific package during the first Moon landing in 1969. Beyond him is lunar module LM-5. The photo was taken by Neil Armstrong, the first human to walk on the Moon. Women were chosen for their manual dexterity to do the delicate work of attaching leads on chips. Each chip contained six transistors. Since the 1960s, the number of transistors contained on a chip has doubled about every 18 months. Modern chips contain billions of transistors. The chips used in the Apollo Guidance Computer were produced by the Philco-Ford company at a plant in Landsdale, Pennsylvania. Before 1964, most integrated circuits were marketed to aerospace and defense customers. Grumman workers assembling a lunar module. Notice the person installing fasteners from inside the lunar module. Grumman technician Ken Crow attaches the commemorative Apollo 16 plaque to the leg of LM-11 Orion. After the ascent stage carried the two moonwalkers back to the command and service module, the base of the LM remained on the Moon.
28. GAL100_160704_105.JPG: Lunar Module LM-2 This lunar module represents one of humanity's greatest achievements; landing people on another heavenly body. Between 1969 and 1972, six lunar modules essentially identical to this one landed a total of 12 American astronauts on the Moon. This lunar module, LM-2, never flew in space. It was built for testing in low Earth orbit but was actually used on Earth to measure the LM's ability to withstand the forces of landing on the Moon. It is configured as LM-5, Apollo 11's lunar module Eagle. The lunar module also symbolizes the United States' greatest triumph in the space race with the Soviet Union, part of the competition for technological supremacy and international prestige during the Cold War of 1945-91. "We would like to give special thanks to all those Americans who built the spacecraft; who did the construction, design, the tests, and put their hearts and all their abilities into those craft. To those people tonight, we give a special thank you." -- Neil Armstrong, July 23, 1969 Neil Armstrong's and Buzz Aldrin's walk on the Moon was a worldwide television event. What other global events have you watched? Before the Apollo missions landed humans on the Moon, walking on another heavenly body was a dream, possible only in fiction. Apollo 11 made it a reality.
29. GAL100_160704_107.JPG: Integrated Circuits for Apollo: The newly invented integrated circuit, or silicon "chip," was among the many innovations in the lunar module's onboard computer. The astronauts used the computer to guide the LM to a safe landing. Silicon chips allowed the computer to meet the LM's weight, size, and power requirements. Women were chosen for their manual dexterity to do the delicate work of attaching leads on chips. Each chip contained six transistors. Since the 1960s, the number of transistors contained on a chip has doubled about every 18 months. Modern chips contain billions of transistors. The chips used in the Apollo Guidance Computer were produced by the Philco-Ford company at a plant in Landsdale, Pennsylvania. Before 1964, most integrated circuits were marketed to aerospace and defense customers.
30. GAL100_160704_110.JPG: Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin deploys a scientific package during the first Moon landing in 1969. Beyond him is lunar module LM-5. The photo was taken by Neil Armstrong, the first human to walk on the Moon. Grumman Workers: Lead engineer Tom Kelly's team at Grumman Aircraft on Long Island, New York, spent nine years engineering and building lunar modules for NASA. Like other workers who contributed to the Apollo program, they took great pride in their work. For Apollo 17, the final lunar landing in 1972, some "Grummies" hung a sign on the rocket: "This may be our last LM but it will be our best." Grumman workers assembling a lunar module. Notice the person installing fasteners from inside the lunar module. Grumman technician Ken Crow attaches the commemorative Apollo 16 plaque to the leg of LM-11 Orion. After the ascent stage carried the two moonwalkers back to the command and service module, the base of the LM remained on the Moon.
31. GAL100_160704_129.JPG: Mariner 2 Mariner 2 began the era of robotic exploration of the planets, moons, asteroids, and comets in our solar system. Mariner 2 inaugurated a series of unpiloted space craft missions to other planets and their moons, as well as to asteroids and comets. These problems have added immensely to our knowledge of the solar system and how it formed. The spacecraft displayed here was assembled from hardware identical to that used on Mariner 2. Launched on August 27, 1962, Mariner 2 was the world's first successful interplanetary spacecraft. It passed within 35,000 kilometers (22,000 miles) of Venus and collected valuable data about Earth's sister planet. It discovered that Venus's surface is extremely hot, making it unlikely that life exists there. Mariner 2 then flew on to orbit the Sun. "Those planning eventual manned expeditions to Venus must be exceedingly perplexed over whether to send along a paleobotanist, a mineralologist, a petroleum geologist, or a deep-sea diver." -- Carl Sagan, 1961 Unforgiving Nature of Spaceflight: Mariner 1, NASA's first attempt to reach Venus, failed. A missing symbol (incorrectly reported as a hyphen) in the Mariner 1 guidance equations caused the Atlas launch vehicle to veer off course, so it was destroyed. The Mariner 2 launch a month later was successful, but many later U.S. and Soviet missions to Venus and Mars also failed for various reasons. The exploration of deep space is unforgiving of errors. Venus: A Hostile Planet: Mariner 2 carried instruments to measure heat coming from Venus's surface and atmosphere. It found that the surface, hidden beneath a thick layer of clouds, is extremely hot -- 427 degrees C (800 degrees F) -- with little difference in temperature from day to night. Also unlike Earth, Venus lacks a strong magnetic field to block cosmic radiation. The two wing-like parts are solar panels. They collected the Sun's energy to power the spacecraft instruments. Before Mariner 2, humans had only been able to explore the solar system by observing via telescopes. Since the 1960s, humans have sent probes to every planet, which has greatly expanded our knowledge of the solar system. This artist's concept of an early Mariner spacecraft shows its solar panels deployed along with its dish antenna. Mariner 2's success after the well-publicized failure of Mariner 1 showed how quickly scientists and engineers adapted to correct problems. Mariner 2 successfully launched from Cape Canaveral on August 27, 1962. For many years people believed that life could exist on Venus, as Frank Paul's cover art for The Man From Venus (1939) shows. Mariner 2 and later probes verified that conditions were actually too hostile to support life. Mariner 2 sent back its findings in the form of long streams of numerical data. Receiving stations in California, South Africa, and Australia retrieved and printed out these data on long strips of paper for analysis.
32. GAL100_160704_130.JPG: Mariner 2 Mariner 2 began the era of robotic exploration of the planets, moons, asteroids, and comets in our solar system. Mariner 2 inaugurated a series of unpiloted space craft missions to other planets and their moons, as well as to asteroids and comets. These problems have added immensely to our knowledge of the solar system and how it formed. The spacecraft displayed here was assembled from hardware identical to that used on Mariner 2. Launched on August 27, 1962, Mariner 2 was the world's first successful interplanetary spacecraft. It passed within 35,000 kilometers (22,000 miles) of Venus and collected valuable data about Earth's sister planet. It discovered that Venus's surface is extremely hot, making it unlikely that life exists there. Mariner 2 then flew on to orbit the Sun. "Those planning eventual manned expeditions to Venus must be exceedingly perplexed over whether to send along a paleobotanist, a mineralologist, a petroleum geologist, or a deep-sea diver." -- Carl Sagan, 1961 The two wing-like parts are solar panels. They collected the Sun's energy to power the spacecraft instruments. Before Mariner 2, humans had only been able to explore the solar system by observing via telescopes. Since the 1960s, humans have sent probes to every planet, which has greatly expanded our knowledge of the solar system.
33. GAL100_160704_133.JPG: Unforgiving Nature of Spaceflight: Mariner 1, NASA's first attempt to reach Venus, failed. A missing symbol (incorrectly reported as a hyphen) in the Mariner 1 guidance equations caused the Atlas launch vehicle to veer off course, so it was destroyed. The Mariner 2 launch a month later was successful, but many later U.S. and Soviet missions to Venus and Mars also failed for various reasons. The exploration of deep space is unforgiving of errors. Mariner 2's success after the well-publicized failure of Mariner 1 showed how quickly scientists and engineers adapted to correct problems. Mariner 2 successfully launched from Cape Canaveral on August 27, 1962.
34. GAL100_160704_138.JPG: Venus: A Hostile Planet: Mariner 2 carried instruments to measure heat coming from Venus's surface and atmosphere. It found that the surface, hidden beneath a thick layer of clouds, is extremely hot -- 427 degrees C (800 degrees F) -- with little difference in temperature from day to night. Also unlike Earth, Venus lacks a strong magnetic field to block cosmic radiation. This artist's concept of an early Mariner spacecraft shows its solar panels deployed along with its dish antenna. For many years people believed that life could exist on Venus, as Frank Paul's cover art for The Man From Venus (1939) shows. Mariner 2 and later probes verified that conditions were actually too hostile to support life. Mariner 2 sent back its findings in the form of long streams of numerical data. Receiving stations in California, South Africa, and Australia retrieved and printed out these data on long strips of paper for analysis.
35. GAL100_160704_142.JPG: Mariner 2
36. GAL100_160704_148.JPG: Viking Lander
37. GAL100_160704_155.JPG: Viking Lander The two-part Viking spacecraft began to unlock the secrets of Mars and fueled public enthusiasm for planetary exploration. This Viking lander is identical to the two landers that in 1976 became the first U.S. spacecraft to reach the surface of Mars. During mission planning and while the landers operated on Mars, scientists and engineers used this duplicate to model how the landers would respond to various radio commands. The ability to soft land a spacecraft and gather data revolutionized what scientists knew about Mars: what it's made of, how it might have formed, and what that reveals about how our solar system evolved. Each Viking spacecraft consisted of an orbiter and a lander. The Viking 1 lander worked for more than 6 years after landing on July 20, 1976. Viking 2 landed two months later on the other side of Mars, where it transmitted data for over 3-1/2 years. "Is there life on Mars?" -- David Bowie, Hunky Dory, 1973 The Search for Life: The primary objective of the Viking missions was to hunt for evidence of present or past life by searching for chemical indicators of living processes. Viking instruments detected many of the building blocks of life but found no conclusive evidence that life ever existed on Mars. Carl Sagan: Cornell astronomer Carl Sagan helped select the landing sites and plan the Viking missions. He articulated the excitement of space exploration to a generation of Americans from the 1970s to the 1990s. Through his PBS television series Cosmos (1980), his appearances on such programs as The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson, and his engaging writings in popular magazines and books, he bridged the gap between scientists and the public. This illustration of a Viking lander on Mars shows how its accompanying orbiter beamed data back to Earth. Each Viking lander scooped soil from the surface and deposited it in a miniature robotic chemical laboratory for analysis. Viking transmitted dramatic color photos, many showing the Martian sky, which was salmon colored, not blue as expected. The landers also analyzed the soil, measured the wind, and sampled the atmosphere. Sagan stands in front of a Viking lander mockup in Death Valley, California. Viking 1 landed during the 200th anniversary celebration of US independence. A signal from a Viking orbiter cut the ribbon to open the Smithsonian's new National Air and Space Museum on July 1, 1976, as part of the Bicentennial festivities.
38. GAL100_160704_161.JPG: Viking Lander The two-part Viking spacecraft began to unlock the secrets of Mars and fueled public enthusiasm for planetary exploration. This Viking lander is identical to the two landers that in 1976 became the first U.S. spacecraft to reach the surface of Mars. During mission planning and while the landers operated on Mars, scientists and engineers used this duplicate to model how the landers would respond to various radio commands. The ability to soft land a spacecraft and gather data revolutionized what scientists knew about Mars: what it's made of, how it might have formed, and what that reveals about how our solar system evolved. Each Viking spacecraft consisted of an orbiter and a lander. The Viking 1 lander worked for more than 6 years after landing on July 20, 1976. Viking 2 landed two months later on the other side of Mars, where it transmitted data for over 3-1/2 years. "Is there life on Mars?" -- David Bowie, Hunky Dory, 1973 The long digging arm collected soil for experiments. It dropped the soil into three canisters on top of the spacecraft. Can you find them? (Hint: One has a tunnel.)
39. GAL100_160704_167.JPG: Viking Lander The two-part Viking spacecraft began to unlock the secrets of Mars and fueled public enthusiasm for planetary exploration. This Viking lander is identical to the two landers that in 1976 became the first U.S. spacecraft to reach the surface of Mars. During mission planning and while the landers operated on Mars, scientists and engineers used this duplicate to model how the landers would respond to various radio commands. The ability to soft land a spacecraft and gather data revolutionized what scientists knew about Mars: what it's made of, how it might have formed, and what that reveals about how our solar system evolved. Each Viking spacecraft consisted of an orbiter and a lander. The Viking 1 lander worked for more than 6 years after landing on July 20, 1976. Viking 2 landed two months later on the other side of Mars, where it transmitted data for over 3-1/2 years. "Is there life on Mars?" -- David Bowie, Hunky Dory, 1973
40. GAL100_160704_168.JPG: The Search for Life: The primary objective of the Viking missions was to hunt for evidence of present or past life by searching for chemical indicators of living processes. Viking instruments detected many of the building blocks of life but found no conclusive evidence that life ever existed on Mars. Each Viking lander scooped soil from the surface and deposited it in a miniature robotic chemical laboratory for analysis. Viking transmitted dramatic color photos, many showing the Martian sky, which was salmon colored, not blue as expected. The landers also analyzed the soil, measured the wind, and sampled the atmosphere.
41. GAL100_160704_171.JPG: Carl Sagan: Cornell astronomer Carl Sagan helped select the landing sites and plan the Viking missions. He articulated the excitement of space exploration to a generation of Americans from the 1970s to the 1990s. Through his PBS television series Cosmos (1980), his appearances on such programs as The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson, and his engaging writings in popular magazines and books, he bridged the gap between scientists and the public. This illustration of a Viking lander on Mars shows how its accompanying orbiter beamed data back to Earth. Sagan stands in front of a Viking lander mockup in Death Valley, California. Viking 1 landed during the 200th anniversary celebration of US independence. A signal from a Viking orbiter cut the ribbon to open the Smithsonian's new National Air and Space Museum on July 1, 1976, as part of the Bicentennial festivities.
42. GAL100_160704_188.JPG: Sputnik 1 and Explorer 1 Launching the first artificial satellites began the space age and started the Soviet-American space race. The United States and the Soviet Union both committed to launch satellites for the International Geophysical Year (IGY), an 18-month worldwide science initiative from July 1957 through December 1958. Sputnik I Replica: On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union sent Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite, into orbit. Sputnik contained a radio transmitter than sent back the "beep-beep-beep" heard around the world. Although its signal was weak, its message was strong: the Soviet Union had entered the space age. Explorer 1 Backup: On January 31, 1958, Explorer 1 launched aboard an Army missile. The first successful US satellite contained a cosmic ray detector, a radio transmitter, and temperature and micrometeroid sensors. Its flight marked America's entry in the space race, a new Cold War competition. "This ball will be exhibited in museums!" -- Sergei P. Korolev, Soviet chief designer Soviet Success, American Failure: Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev liked Sputnik 1 so much that he ordered chief designer Sergei P. Korolev to launch a second satellite for the anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution. On November 3, 1957, the larger and heavier Sputnik 2 carried the dog Laika into orbit. The first American satellite launch effort failed spectacularly on December 6, 1957, when its Vanguard rocket exploded during liftoff. A Major American Discovery: Explorer 1 and Explorer 3 detected intense radiation belts around the Earth, later named for University of Iowa physicist Dr. James A. Van Allen, who directed the design and creation of Explorer's instruments. The first major scientific discovery of the space age, the Van Allen belts remain a subject of research today. Before Sputnik flew, there was nothing known orbiting the earth other than the Moon. Now thousands of active and inactive satellites ring the planet. Sputnik's sphere was polished to a high sheen to aid in tracking by telescope and to enhance its appearance. Despite Sputnik's streamlined appearance, it tumbled while in orbit. Explorer's striped front section contained the payload, which was propelled by a solid-fuel rocket motor. The satellites's light and dark stripes controlled its temperature. Explorer spun on its long axis for stability. A rare photo of Soviet chief designer Sergei Korolev shows him with one of the possible spacefaring dogs. Navy artist Ted Wilbur titled this painting of the Vanguard explosion Heartbreak. Three key team members display a full-scale model of Explorer after its successful launch. From the left: William Pickering, Jet Propulsion Laboratory director; James Van Allen, Explorer's instrument designer; and Wernher von Braun, Jupiter-C rocket designer. This diagram from the early 1960s shows a rough concept of the Van Allen radiation belts, which protect life on Earth from cosmic radiation. The Explorer satellites discovered them.
43. GAL100_160704_194.JPG: Sputnik 1 and Explorer 1 Launching the first artificial satellites began the space age and started the Soviet-American space race. The United States and the Soviet Union both committed to launch satellites for the International Geophysical Year (IGY), an 18-month worldwide science initiative from July 1957 through December 1958. Sputnik I Replica: On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union sent Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite, into orbit. Sputnik contained a radio transmitter than sent back the "beep-beep-beep" heard around the world. Although its signal was weak, its message was strong: the Soviet Union had entered the space age. Explorer 1 Backup: On January 31, 1958, Explorer 1 launched aboard an Army missile. The first successful US satellite contained a cosmic ray detector, a radio transmitter, and temperature and micrometeroid sensors. Its flight marked America's entry in the space race, a new Cold War competition. "This ball will be exhibited in museums!" -- Sergei P. Korolev, Soviet chief designer Before Sputnik flew, there was nothing known orbiting the earth other than the Moon. Now thousands of active and inactive satellites ring the planet.
44. GAL100_160704_197.JPG: Soviet Success, American Failure: Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev liked Sputnik 1 so much that he ordered chief designer Sergei P. Korolev to launch a second satellite for the anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution. On November 3, 1957, the larger and heavier Sputnik 2 carried the dog Laika into orbit. The first American satellite launch effort failed spectacularly on December 6, 1957, when its Vanguard rocket exploded during liftoff. A rare photo of Soviet chief designer Sergei Korolev shows him with one of the possible spacefaring dogs. Navy artist Ted Wilbur titled this painting of the Vanguard explosion Heartbreak.
45. GAL100_160704_202.JPG: A Major American Discovery: Explorer 1 and Explorer 3 detected intense radiation belts around the Earth, later named for University of Iowa physicist Dr. James A. Van Allen, who directed the design and creation of Explorer's instruments. The first major scientific discovery of the space age, the Van Allen belts remain a subject of research today. Sputnik's sphere was polished to a high sheen to aid in tracking by telescope and to enhance its appearance. Despite Sputnik's streamlined appearance, it tumbled while in orbit. Explorer's striped front section contained the payload, which was propelled by a solid-fuel rocket motor. The satellites's light and dark stripes controlled its temperature. Explorer spun on its long axis for stability. Three key team members display a full-scale model of Explorer after its successful launch. From the left: William Pickering, Jet Propulsion Laboratory director; James Van Allen, Explorer's instrument designer; and Wernher von Braun, Jupiter-C rocket designer. This diagram from the early 1960s shows a rough concept of the Van Allen radiation belts, which protect life on Earth from cosmic radiation. The Explorer satellites discovered them.
46. GAL100_160704_206.JPG: Sputnik's sphere was polished to a high sheen to aid in tracking by telescope and to enhance its appearance. Despite Sputnik's streamlined appearance, it tumbled while in orbit.
47. GAL100_160704_209.JPG: Explorer's striped front section contained the payload, which was propelled by a solid-fuel rocket motor. The satellites's light and dark stripes controlled its temperature. Explorer spun on its long axis for stability.
48. GAL100_160704_212.JPG: Sputnik 1
49. GAL100_160704_214.JPG: Explorer 1
50. GAL100_160704_241.JPG: Friendship 7
51. GAL100_160704_255.JPG: Gemini IV Gemini IV achieved the first American spacewalk, a major step toward living and working in space. During Gemini IV, astronaut Edward H. White became the first American to walk in space when he opened the right hatch and floated out of this capsule for 21 minutes. Command pilot James A. McDivitt and White flew for four days, an American record at the time, after their launch on June 3, 1965. Gemini IV was the second of 10 similar spacecraft that each carried two American astronauts in 1965 and 1966. A major part of the space race, the Gemini program provided a critical bridge between the basic Mercury capsules and the sophisticated Apollo missions to the Moon. Gemini astronauts learned how to change orbit, rendezvous and dock with other spacecraft, and walk in space. Gemini was the beginning of practical, work-related spaceflights. "I'm coming back in... And it's the saddest moment of my life." -- Ed White, Answering Mission Controller Christopher Kraft, June 3, 1965 Spacewalking: The Gemini program took place in the heat of the space race with the Soviet Union. The USSR had several firsts, including the first spacewalk, by Alexei Leonov, on March 18, 1965. Three months later, the United States responded with Ed White's 21-minute excursion outside the capsule. The spacewalk was only one of several Gemini IV mission goals, which included a rendezvous attempt, but it was the most dramatic. "Houston": All spaceflight requires significant ground support. Beginning with Gemini IV, ground control moved from Cape Canaveral, Florida, to the new Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas. Known by its call sign, "Houston," that center became the symbol of cool, calm management and problem solving through decades of human spaceflight. Why was it called Gemini? Hint: notice the two seats. Before Gemini IV, all US astronauts traveled in space locked in their vehicles. Spacewalking has allowed astronauts to repair satellites, build the International Space Station, and service the Hubble Space Telescope. White floats above the Earth, tethered to Gemini IV with the gold-colored "umbilical" and a handheld maneuvering device in his right hand. Soviet cosmonaut Alexei Leonov made the first spacewalk during the Voskhod 2 mission. White (left) and McDivitt await liftoff inside Gemini IV. Being able to go outside a spacecraft allowed astronauts to walk on the Moon and opened up the possibilities of building space stations, repairing satellites, and servicing scientific instruments. NASA's first four flight directors in the Houston Mission Control Center. Clockwise from back left: Glynn Lunney, John Hodge, Chris Kraft, and Eugene Kranz. Kraft served as Gemini IV mission director. Deke Slayton (left), NASA director of flight crew operations, speaks to a mission controller during Gemini IV.
52. GAL100_160704_258.JPG: Gemini IV Gemini IV achieved the first American spacewalk, a major step toward living and working in space. During Gemini IV, astronaut Edward H. White became the first American to walk in space when he opened the right hatch and floated out of this capsule for 21 minutes. Command pilot James A. McDivitt and White flew for four days, an American record at the time, after their launch on June 3, 1965. Gemini IV was the second of 10 similar spacecraft that each carried two American astronauts in 1965 and 1966. A major part of the space race, the Gemini program provided a critical bridge between the basic Mercury capsules and the sophisticated Apollo missions to the Moon. Gemini astronauts learned how to change orbit, rendezvous and dock with other spacecraft, and walk in space. Gemini was the beginning of practical, work-related spaceflights. "I'm coming back in... And it's the saddest moment of my life." -- Ed White, Answering Mission Controller Christopher Kraft, June 3, 1965 Why was it called Gemini? Hint: notice the two seats. Before Gemini IV, all US astronauts traveled in space locked in their vehicles. Spacewalking has allowed astronauts to repair satellites, build the International Space Station, and service the Hubble Space Telescope.
53. GAL100_160704_261.JPG: Spacewalking: The Gemini program took place in the heat of the space race with the Soviet Union. The USSR had several firsts, including the first spacewalk, by Alexei Leonov, on March 18, 1965. Three months later, the United States responded with Ed White's 21-minute excursion outside the capsule. The spacewalk was only one of several Gemini IV mission goals, which included a rendezvous attempt, but it was the most dramatic. Soviet cosmonaut Alexei Leonov made the first spacewalk during the Voskhod 2 mission. White (left) and McDivitt await liftoff inside Gemini IV. Being able to go outside a spacecraft allowed astronauts to walk on the Moon and opened up the possibilities of building space stations, repairing satellites, and servicing scientific instruments.
54. GAL100_160704_264.JPG: "Houston": All spaceflight requires significant ground support. Beginning with Gemini IV, ground control moved from Cape Canaveral, Florida, to the new Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas. Known by its call sign, "Houston," that center became the symbol of cool, calm management and problem solving through decades of human spaceflight. White floats above the Earth, tethered to Gemini IV with the gold-colored "umbilical" and a handheld maneuvering device in his right hand. NASA's first four flight directors in the Houston Mission Control Center. Clockwise from back left: Glynn Lunney, John Hodge, Chris Kraft, and Eugene Kranz. Kraft served as Gemini IV mission director. Deke Slayton (left), NASA director of flight crew operations, speaks to a mission controller during Gemini IV.
55. GAL100_160704_267.JPG: White floats above the Earth, tethered to Gemini IV with the gold-colored "umbilical" and a handheld maneuvering device in his right hand.
56. GAL100_160704_322.JPG: The new visitor information center
57. GAL100_160704_345.JPG: Goddard May 1926 Rocket Goddard's work demonstrated that liquid-fueled rockets could make space flight possible. In 1926, Robert Goddard conducted his first launch with a liquid propellant rocket. This rocket, tested in May, is the oldest liquid-fueled rocket in existence. Those tests, done on a relative's farm near Auburn, Massachusetts, demonstrated that liquid-fueled rockets could potentially reach much higher altitudes than gunpowder-based rockets. The May rocket probably includes parts salvaged from a rocket launched on March 16 -- the world's first flight of a liquid-fueled rocket. Although many before them dreamed about the possibility of spaceflight, Goddard's calculations and experiments proved that a properly designed rocket could indeed escape Earth's gravity. "Calculations indicate... that with a rocket of high efficiency, consisting chiefly of propellant material, it should be possible to send small masses even to such great distances as to escape the earth's attraction." -- Robert Goddard, A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes, Smithsonian Institution, 1919 Visionary and Experimenter: Goddard's bold vision of the possibilities of rockets garnered much public attention -- both positive and negative. A New York Times editorial in January 1920 titled "A Severe Strain on Credulity," wrongly accused Goddard of misunderstanding basic scientific principles. The newspaper retracted the article in 1969, during the Apollo 11 mission. Rocket Technology: Goddard's May 1926 rocket consisted of two tanks, one holding liquid oxygen, the other gasoline, feeding a rocket nozzle at the bottom -- a configuration still used today. However, Goddard's rockets had little technological influence on the subsequent development of rocketry and space travel. The Gemini V-2 rocket, exhibited elsewhere in this museum, deserves that credit. Notice that rocket engines have exhaust nozzles but no air intake, as jets do. Rockets carry oxygen with their fuel and do not need to "breath" air. Before Goddard's work, only solid-fueled rockets using gunpowder existed. Goddard showed that liquid-fueled rockets could provide much greater thrust -- even enough to escape Earth's gravity. In March 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. The rocket on display here contained parts from that first launch. After complaints about his rocket testing in Massachusetts, Goddard moved to Roswell, New Mexico, a more secluded environment. The Guggenheim Foundation funded his move, thanks to the intervention of aviator Charles Lindbergh. An assistant moves one of Goddard's rockets on a trailer towed behind a Ford Model T north of Roswell, New Mexico, in the early 1930s. Goddard obtained this U.S. patent in 1914 for improved rocket devices. He acquired over 200 patents for his innovations, many of which were awarded after his death. Goddard's writings about the potential of rocket flight may have had greater influence than his technological innovations.
58. GAL100_160704_351.JPG: Goddard May 1926 Rocket Goddard's work demonstrated that liquid-fueled rockets could make space flight possible. In 1926, Robert Goddard conducted his first launch with a liquid propellant rocket. This rocket, tested in May, is the oldest liquid-fueled rocket in existence. Those tests, done on a relative's farm near Auburn, Massachusetts, demonstrated that liquid-fueled rockets could potentially reach much higher altitudes than gunpowder-based rockets. The May rocket probably includes parts salvaged from a rocket launched on March 16 -- the world's first flight of a liquid-fueled rocket. Although many before them dreamed about the possibility of spaceflight, Goddard's calculations and experiments proved that a properly designed rocket could indeed escape Earth's gravity. "Calculations indicate... that with a rocket of high efficiency, consisting chiefly of propellant material, it should be possible to send small masses even to such great distances as to escape the earth's attraction." -- Robert Goddard, A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes, Smithsonian Institution, 1919 Notice that rocket engines have exhaust nozzles but no air intake, as jets do. Rockets carry oxygen with their fuel and do not need to "breath" air. Before Goddard's work, only solid-fueled rockets using gunpowder existed. Goddard showed that liquid-fueled rockets could provide much greater thrust -- even enough to escape Earth's gravity.
59. GAL100_160704_353.JPG: After complaints about his rocket testing in Massachusetts, Goddard moved to Roswell, New Mexico, a more secluded environment. The Guggenheim Foundation funded his move, thanks to the intervention of aviator Charles Lindbergh. An assistant moves one of Goddard's rockets on a trailer towed behind a Ford Model T north of Roswell, New Mexico, in the early 1930s.
60. GAL100_160704_357.JPG: Rocket Technology: Goddard's May 1926 rocket consisted of two tanks, one holding liquid oxygen, the other gasoline, feeding a rocket nozzle at the bottom -- a configuration still used today. However, Goddard's rockets had little technological influence on the subsequent development of rocketry and space travel. The Gemini V-2 rocket, exhibited elsewhere in this museum, deserves that credit. In March 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. The rocket on display here contained parts from that first launch. Goddard obtained this U.S. patent in 1914 for improved rocket devices. He acquired over 200 patents for his innovations, many of which were awarded after his death. Goddard's writings about the potential of rocket flight may have had greater influence than his technological innovations.
61. GAL100_160704_362.JPG: In March 1926, Robert Goddard launched the first liquid-fueled rocket. The rocket on display here contained parts from that first launch.
62. GAL100_160704_365.JPG: Goddard May 1926 Rocket
63. GAL100_160704_371.JPG: SS-20 ("Pioneer") and Pershing II The treaty that banned these ballistic missiles was a step back from nuclear war and a harbinger of the Cold War's end. The Soviet SS-20 and U.S. Pershing II exhibited here are two of more than 2,600 nuclear missiles banned by the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty, signed by the United States and the Soviet Union in 1987. The treaty was the first international agreement to eliminate an entire class of nuclear weapons: intermediate-range, ground-based ballistic and cruise missiles. These are both inert vehicles designated to be on display by treaty. "I realize those first letter [between myself and Gorbachev] marked the cautious beginning on both sides of what was to become the foundation of not only a better relationship between our countries but a friendship between two men." -- Ronald Reagan, An American Life: The Autobiography, 1990 SS-20 Soviet Nuclear Missile: The Soviet SS-20 carried three independently targeted nuclear warheads. Beginning in 1976, they were deployed at 48 bases in the Soviet Union, putting them within range of targets in Western Europe and Asia. Pershing II US Nuclear Missile: The U.S. Army's mobile Pershing II intermediate-range ballistic missile carried a single, variable-yield nuclear warhead. Pershing IIs were deployed at U.S. bases in West Germany beginning in 1983 and aimed at targets in the western Soviet Union. "The biggest step that would make an impression on the outside world, on public opinion, would be if we untie the package and agree to cut 1,000 of our most powerful missiles." -- Mikhail Gorbachev, Politburo member, February 26, 1987 Reagan and Gorbachev: The mutual respect that developed between US President Ronald Reagan and Soviet Secretary General Mikhail Gorbachev was crucial to the singing of the INF Treaty. Gorbachev's advocacy of perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost (openness) at home and in foreign policy, and Reagan's willingness to negotiate the treaty, helped to end the Cold War. Exhibiting Eliminated Weapons: The INF Treaty declared that each side could keep 15 disabled missiles and launchers to exhibit. Other US examples are in Oklahoma, New Mexico, Florida, Alabama and Virginia. The Smithsonian exchanged one Pershing II with the Soviet Union for the SS-20 missile. The treaty terms require that the missiles cannot be moved without official notification to both the United States and Russia.
64. GAL100_160704_378.JPG: The Soviet SS-20 and U.S. Pershing II exhibited here are two of more than 2,600 nuclear missiles banned by the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty, signed by the United States and the Soviet Union in 1987. The treaty was the first international agreement to eliminate an entire class of nuclear weapons: intermediate-range, ground-based ballistic and cruise missiles. These are both inert vehicles designated to be on display by treaty. "I realize those first letter [between myself and Gorbachev] marked the cautious beginning on both sides of what was to become the foundation of not only a better relationship between our countries but a friendship between two men." -- Ronald Reagan, An American Life: The Autobiography, 1990 SS-20 Soviet Nuclear Missile: The Soviet SS-20 carried three independently targeted nuclear warheads. Beginning in 1976, they were deployed at 48 bases in the Soviet Union, putting them within range of targets in Western Europe and Asia. Pershing II US Nuclear Missile: The U.S. Army's mobile Pershing II intermediate-range ballistic missile carried a single, variable-yield nuclear warhead. Pershing IIs were deployed at U.S. bases in West Germany beginning in 1983 and aimed at targets in the western Soviet Union. "The biggest step that would make an impression on the outside world, on public opinion, would be if we untie the package and agree to cut 1,000 of our most powerful missiles." -- Mikhail Gorbachev, Politburo member, February 26, 1987
65. GAL100_160704_383.JPG: Reagan and Gorbachev: The mutual respect that developed between US President Ronald Reagan and Soviet Secretary General Mikhail Gorbachev was crucial to the singing of the INF Treaty. Gorbachev's advocacy of perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost (openness) at home and in foreign policy, and Reagan's willingness to negotiate the treaty, helped to end the Cold War. Reagan and Gorbachev met at a summit on Reykjavik, Iceland, in 1986. Although no agreement was reached there, that meeting laid the foundation for their 1987 summit. Gorbachev and Reagan signed the INF Treaty at a summit meeting in Washington, DC in December 1987.
66. GAL100_160704_389.JPG: Exhibiting Eliminated Weapons: The INF Treaty declared that each side could keep 15 disabled missiles and launchers to exhibit. Other US examples are in Oklahoma, New Mexico, Florida, Alabama and Virginia. The Smithsonian exchanged one Pershing II with the Soviet Union for the SS-20 missile. The treaty terms require that the missiles cannot be moved without official notification to both the United States and Russia. The Cold War arms race created arsenals of weapons displayed around the world. If used, even a small number would have had devastating effects. The deployment of intermediate-range ballistic missiles in the 1980s ignited protests throughout Europe.
67. GAL100_160704_395.JPG: SS-20 Fragment: This is a piece of an SS-20 eliminated by explosive demolition on April 23, 1990, at Kapurstin Yar in the southwestern USSR. Pershing II Fragment: This fragment of a rocket motor casing is from a Pershing II destroyed on September 8, 1988.
68. GAL100_160704_401.JPG: SS-20 (left) Pershing II (right)
69. GAL100_160704_407.JPG: Discoverer XIII The Discoverer satellite program began an age of spying from space that continues to this day. "Discoverer" was the cover name used in the early years of the highly classified US Air Force / Central Intelligence Agency Corona photoreconnaissance satellite program. This Discovered XIII capsule became the first human-made object recovered from orbit. The US Navy retrieved it from the Pacific Ocean north of Hawaii on August 11, 1960, after a day in orbit. Although Discoverer XIII contained only self-diagnostic instruments, Discoverer XIV and later satellites carried cameras and film. By the end of the Corona program in 1972, over 120 Corona satellites had successfully flown and photographed the Soviet Union, China, and other nations. "We've spent $35 to $40 billion on the space program. And if nothing else had come out of it except the knowledge that we gained from space photography, it would be worth ten times what the whole program has cost." -- President Lyndon B. Johnson, 1967 Cold War Secrecy: The top secret Corona program provided critical information to U.S. policymakers through the 1960s that helped maintain the Cold War balance of power. Its cost was comparable to the highly publicized U.S. human space program, but the public did not learn about it until President Clinton declassified its existence in 1995. The Politics of Overflight: The two Soviet Sputnik satellites in 1957 had established the precedent of flying over other nations without their permission. The Corona program was established the following year to provide data on the USSR and to so less provocatively than the U-2 spy planes, which had also been conducting missions over that country.
70. GAL100_160704_420.JPG: Early spy satellite photographic systems used film, which had to be returned to Earth and developed in a laboratory. Modern satellites transmit images electronically, which allows the satellites to remain in orbit longer and acquire more imagery. This is a photo of the Tyuratum launch facility in the Soviet Union> The photo was taken by a U.S. spy satellite developed after Discovered XIII.
71. GAL100_160704_423.JPG: Discoverer XIII The Discoverer satellite program began an age of spying from space that continues to this day. "Discoverer" was the cover name used in the early years of the highly classified US Air Force / Central Intelligence Agency Corona photoreconnaissance satellite program. This Discovered XIII capsule became the first human-made object recovered from orbit. The US Navy retrieved it from the Pacific Ocean north of Hawaii on August 11, 1960, after a day in orbit. Although Discoverer XIII contained only self-diagnostic instruments, Discoverer XIV and later satellites carried cameras and film. By the end of the Corona program in 1972, over 120 Corona satellites had successfully flown and photographed the Soviet Union, China, and other nations. "We've spent $35 to $40 billion on the space program. And if nothing else had come out of it except the knowledge that we gained from space photography, it would be worth ten times what the whole program has cost." -- President Lyndon B. Johnson, 1967 Why is it gold? A thin coating of gold on the capsule helped maintain the temperature of the capsule's contents, as it entered the Earth's atmosphere. Discoverer XIII began an era of satellite observation of Earth for national security. Now we rely on satellite images for national security, weather prediction, climate monitoring, navigation, agricultural planning, and many other functions.
72. GAL100_160704_429.JPG: Cold War Secrecy: The top secret Corona program provided critical information to U.S. policymakers through the 1960s that helped maintain the Cold War balance of power. Its cost was comparable to the highly publicized U.S. human space program, but the public did not learn about it until President Clinton declassified its existence in 1995. President Eisenhower (left) and two Air Force officers inspect the recovered capsule at a ceremony in the White House in 1960. The public was told the capsule was part of a "Discoverer" series of scientific satellites, and not told of its true mission. The gold-plated reentry capsule and parachute were the only items that returned from space to be recovered. The upper rocket stage and the heat shield were both jettisoned. Discoverer XIII splashed down in the ocean and was retrieved by a helicopter. Later models were caught mid-air.
73. GAL100_160704_435.JPG: The Politics of Overflight: The two Soviet Sputnik satellites in 1957 had established the precedent of flying over other nations without their permission. The Corona program was established the following year to provide data on the USSR and to so less provocatively than the U-2 spy planes, which had also been conducting missions over that country. An Air Force C-119 retrieves a Discoverer/Corona capsule in midair. The trapeze-like apparatus behind the aircraft had several hooks to snag the capsule's parachute lines. Early spy satellite photographic systems used film, which had to be returned to Earth and developed in a laboratory. Modern satellites transmit images electronically, which allows the satellites to remain in orbit longer and acquire more imagery. This is a photo of the Tyuratum launch facility in the Soviet Union> The photo was taken by a U.S. spy satellite developed after Discovered XIII.
74. GAL100_160704_444.JPG: President Eisenhower (left) and two Air Force officers inspect the recovered capsule at a ceremony in the White House in 1960. The public was told the capsule was part of a "Discoverer" series of scientific satellites, and not told of its true mission. The gold-plated reentry capsule and parachute were the only items that returned from space to be recovered. The upper rocket stage and the heat shield were both jettisoned. Discoverer XIII splashed down in the ocean and was retrieved by a helicopter. Later models were caught mid-air.
75. GAL100_160704_452.JPG: SS-20 (left) Pershing II (right)
76. GAL100_161211_032.JPG: John Herschell Glenn Jr. Colonel, USMC, Ret., Astronaut, US Senator 1921-2016 John Glenn had died on December 8, 2016 and this was a commemorative sign they put up for him.
77. GAL100_161211_069.JPG: 1921-2016 Remembering John H. Glenn First American to Orbit the Earth
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Description of Subject Matter: Milestones of Flight
July 1, 1976 – 2021
This gallery features famous airplanes and spacecraft that exemplify the major achievements in the history of flight.
Highlights include:
* Mercury Friendship 7: the first manned orbiting flight, carrying John Glenn, Feb. 20, 1962
* Gemini IV: the first U.S. space walk by Edward H. White II, June 3-7, 1965
* Apollo 11 Command Module Columbia: 1st manned lunar landing, 1969, carrying Neil Armstrong, Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin, and Michael Collins
* Goddard Rockets: a full-scale model of the world's 1st liquid propellant rocket, flown on March 16, 1926, and a large rocket constructed in 1941 by Robert Goddard, father of American rocketry
* Bell XS-1 (X-1) Glamorous Glennis: 1st manned flight faster than the speed of sound, flown by Chuck Yeager, Oct. 14, 1947
* Ryan NYP Spirit of St. Louis: Lindbergh's plane for 1st solo trans-atlantic non-stop flight 1927
* Explorer I: back-up model of 1st U.S. satellite to orbit the earth, 1958
* Sputnik I: Russian replica of 1st artificial satellite to orbit the Earth, 1957
* North American X-15: 1st winged, manned aircraft to exceed 6 times the speed of sound and the 1st airplane to explore the fringes of space, 1967
* Mariner 2: model of 1st spacecraft to study another planet when it flew by Venus, launched Dec. 14, 1962
* Pioneer 10 (prototype): 1st spacecraft to fly by Jupiter and 1st aircraft to venture beyond the planets, launched March 3, 1972
* Viking Lander: an unmanned proof test capsule used in ground tests before and during the Viking flights to Mars in 1976
* Bell XP-59A Airacomet (#1 of 3): 1st American turbojet aircraft, direct ancestor to all American jet aircraft, flown by Robert M. Stanley, Oct. 1, 1942
* Breitling Orbiter 3 Balloon Gondola: 1st balloon to fly around the world nonstop in 1999
* SpaceShipOne: 1st privately built and operated vehicle to reach space

A major renovation is now underway. The new Boeing Milestones of Flight Hall, to be ...More...
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- 2017_DC_SIAIR_Gall100A: DC -- Natl Air and Space Museum -- Gallery 100: (a) Milestones of Flight (58 photos from 2017)
- 2015_DC_SIAIR_Gall100A: DC -- Natl Air and Space Museum -- Gallery 100: (a) Milestones of Flight (170 photos from 2015)
- 2012_DC_SIAIR_Gall100A: DC -- Natl Air and Space Museum -- Gallery 100: (a) Milestones of Flight (19 photos from 2012)
- 2010_DC_SIAIR_Gall100A: DC -- Natl Air and Space Museum -- Gallery 100: (a) Milestones of Flight (21 photos from 2010)
- 2008_DC_SIAIR_Gall100A: DC -- Natl Air and Space Museum -- Gallery 100: (a) Milestones of Flight (4 photos from 2008)
- 2007_DC_SIAIR_Gall100A: DC -- Natl Air and Space Museum -- Gallery 100: (a) Milestones of Flight (5 photos from 2007)
- 2005_DC_SIAIR_Gall100A: DC -- Natl Air and Space Museum -- Gallery 100: (a) Milestones of Flight (35 photos from 2005)
- 2003_DC_SIAIR_Gall100A: DC -- Natl Air and Space Museum -- Gallery 100: (a) Milestones of Flight (13 photos from 2003)
- 2002_DC_SIAIR_Gall100A: DC -- Natl Air and Space Museum -- Gallery 100: (a) Milestones of Flight (15 photos from 2002)
- 1999_DC_SIAIR_Gall100A: DC -- Natl Air and Space Museum -- Gallery 100: (a) Milestones of Flight (2 photos from 1999)
- 1997_DC_SIAIR_Gall100A: DC -- Natl Air and Space Museum -- Gallery 100: (a) Milestones of Flight (16 photos from 1997)
Same Subject: Click on this link to see coverage of items having the same subject: [(Smithsonian) Air and Space Museum (Everything)] [(Smithsonian) Air and Space Museum (Non-Events)] [Museums (History)]
2016 photos: Equipment this year: I continued to use my Fuji XS-1 cameras but, depending on the event, I also used a Nikon D7000. Seven relatively short trips this year: two Civil War Trust conference (Gettysburg, PA and West Point, NY, with a side-trip to New York City), my 11th consecutive San Diego Comic-Con trip (including sites in Utah, Nevada, and California), a quick trip to Michigan for Uncle Wayne's funeral, two additional trips to New York City, and a Civil Rights site trip to Alabama during the November elections. Being in places where people died to preserve the rights of minority voters made the Trumputin election even more depressing. Number of photos taken this year: just over 610,000.
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Photo Contact: [Email Bruce Guthrie].