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SCI_150213_007.JPG: Spiral Staircases:
Inside the doorway ahead is one of the more interesting aspects of the architecture of the Supreme Court Building; a self supporting, elliptical spiral staircase. It is one of the two identical staircases designed for the building by Cass Gilbert. It is unclear whether Gilbert chose to use this rare form for practical reasons or simply for its exceptional visual beauty.
Construction:
The marble for the staircases was quarried by the Moretti-Harrah Marble Company near Sylacauga, Alabama. The rough blocks were transported to Knoxville, Tennessee, where the Gray-Knox Marble Company finished the stone in their mill. After the steps were cut, the staircase was assembled upside down to make sure that each piece was an exact fit. In a few places, a run of several steps was cut from one piece of marble. After numbering each piece, the staircases were dismantled and shipped to Washington for installation.
Design:
Each of the staircases has 136 steps that complete seven spirals while ascending five stories from the basement to the third floor. The cantilevered design of the staircases eliminates the need for a central support as each step is anchored into the marble wall on one end and rests upon the step below it. The staircases, therefore, are held in place by fit and pressure rather than mortar and steel.
Symbolism:
On each floor's landing, bronze door frames are decorated with neoclassical motifs, including leaves, urns, and anthemia (floral decorations). In addition, four law related themes repeat: a lamp representing knowledge, a book inscribed with "LEX" (Latin for law), and owl symbolizing wisdom, and the Scales of Justice symbolizing impartiality. The bronze railings for the stairs are adorned with a classical wave pattern, rosettes, and oval medallions featuring an eagle, a symbol of the United States.
SCI_150213_010.JPG: Construction:
The marble for the staircases was quarried by the Moretti-Harrah Marble Company near Sylacauga, Alabama. The rough blocks were transported to Knoxville, Tennessee, where the Gray-Knox Marble Company finished the stone in their mill. After the steps were cut, the staircase was assembled upside down to make sure that each piece was an exact fit. In a few places, a run of several steps was cut from one piece of marble. After numbering each piece, the staircases were dismantled and shipped to Washington for installation.
SCI_150213_012.JPG: Design:
Each of the staircases has 136 steps that complete seven spirals while ascending five stories from the basement to the third floor. The cantilevered design of the staircases eliminates the need for a central support as each step is anchored into the marble wall on one end and rests upon the step below it. The staircases, therefore, are held in place by fit and pressure rather than mortar and steel.
SCI_150213_014.JPG: Symbolism:
On each floor's landing, bronze door frames are decorated with neoclassical motifs, including leaves, urns, and anthemia (floral decorations). In addition, four law related themes repeat: a lamp representing knowledge, a book inscribed with "LEX" (Latin for law), and owl symbolizing wisdom, and the Scales of Justice symbolizing impartiality. The bronze railings for the stairs are adorned with a classical wave pattern, rosettes, and oval medallions featuring an eagle, a symbol of the United States.
SCI_150213_021.JPG: Joseph Story
Associate Justice (1812-1845)
by GPA Healy
SCI_150213_030.JPG: Louis D. Brandeis
Associate Justice (1916-1939)
by Eben F. Comins
SCI_150213_038.JPG: Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.
Associate Justice (1902-1932)
by Charles Sydney Hopkinson
SCI_150213_044.JPG: William O. Douglas
Associate Justice (1939-1975)
by Wendy M. Ross
SCI_150213_053.JPG: Hugo L. Black
Associate Justice (1937-1971)
by John Pelham Black after photo by Yousuf Karsh
SCI_150213_058.JPG: William O. Douglas
Associate Justice (1939-1975)
by Elias Kanarek
SCI_150213_061.JPG: Arthur J. Goldberg
Associate Justice (1962-1965)
by Lucien Le Breton
SCI_150213_066.JPG: Hugo L. Black
Associate Justice (1937-1971)
by John P. Black
SCI_150213_070.JPG: Felix Frankfurter
Associate Justice (1939-1962)
by Gardner Coz
SCI_150213_075.JPG: Owen J. Roberts
Associate Justice (1930-1945)
by Alfred Jonniaux
SCI_150213_080.JPG: William J. Brennan, Jr.
Associate Justice (1936-1990)
by Paul C. Burns
SCI_150213_082.JPG: John Paul Stevens
Associate Justice (1975-2010)
by James J. Ingwersen
SCI_150213_088.JPG: Potter Stewart
Associate Justice (1958-1981)
by Ruth Nestor
SCI_150213_092.JPG: Harry A. Blackmun
Associate Justice (1970-1994)
by Everett Raymond Kinstler
SCI_150213_097.JPG: Lewis F. Powell, Jr.
Associate Justice (1972-1987)
by George Augusta
SCI_150213_109.JPG: 1836-1873
The Taney and Chase Courts
Chief Justice: Roger B. Taney, 1836-1864, appointed by Jackson
Chief Justice: Salmon P. Chase, 1864-1873, appointed by Lincoln
The National Debate:
The Court became the center of the national debate on slavery in Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857), which questioned the rights of enslaved people and the ability of Congress to regulate slavery in territories. In a 7-2 decision, Chief Justice Taney wrote the Court's opinion, stating that slaves were not citizens and that Congress did not have the power to regulate slavery. Although Taney hoped to settle the argument once and for all, the opinion pushed the country closer to civil war.
Judicial Snapshot:
The first official photograph of the Court was taken in 1865 by Alexander Gardner (below). As photography became more common, members of government bodies were increasingly documented in photographs. This tradition continues today as an official photograph is taken every time a new member joins the Court.
Westward, Ho!
As the nation expanded westward, the court system followed. The first Justice appointed from west of the Mississippi, Samuel F. Miller, joined the Court in 1862 and several more soon followed. The addition of new territories also changed the types of cases before the Court, as they heard more cases relating to land disputes and new technologies, such as railroads.
Musical Chairs:
Throughout the 19th century, the number of seats on the Court changes as new states joined the nation, growing to ten in 1863. The number eventually settled at nine in 1869, where it remains today.
1837: 9
1863: 10
1866: 7
1869: 9
Law School Grads:
When Benjamin R. Curtis joined the Court in 1851, he became the first Justice who had earned a law degree, graduating in 1832. Previously, few formal law schools existed and most students read law under the tutelage of practicing lawyers. Attending law school steadily became more common among members of the Court.
New Amendments:
The passage of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments, prohibiting slavery and guaranteeing the rights of citizens, expanded the powers of the American Constitution. Much of the Justices' work in the next decades involved interpreting these new Amendments.
1836: First Catholic Justice: Roger B. Taney
1839: The Daguerreotype is invented
1841: Amistad case
1846-1848: Mexican-American War
1848: California Gold Rush begins
1852: Uncle Tom's Cabin is published
1852: Otis safety elevator is invented
1857: Dred Scot v. Sandford
1860: Court moves to the Old Senate Chamber in the U.S. Capitol
1861-1865: American Civil War
1863: Emancipation Proclamation
1865: First African-American admitted to the Supreme Court Bar: John S. Rock
1869: Trans-continental Railroad connected
1873: Levi Strauss created jeans
1873: Slaughterhouse cases
SCI_150213_116.JPG: 1789-1835: The Jay, Rutledge, Ellsworth, and Marshall Courts
Chief Justice John Jay, 1789-1795, Appointed by Washington
Chief Justice John Rutledge, 1795, Appointed by Washington
Chief Justice Oliver Ellsworth, 1796-1800, Appointed by Washington
Chief Justice John Marshall, 1801-1835, Appointed by J. Adams
Home Sweet Home:
Following the location of the federal government, the Court moved several times in its first ten years.
* 1790, New York City
* 1791-1800, Philadelphia
* 1801-present, Washington DC
Chief Justice John Marshall by the Numbers:
4 -- John Marshall was the fourth Chief Justice
34 -- Years of service, longest ever for a Chief Justice
1 -- "Opinion of the Court," a practice institutionalized by Marshall. Previously the Justices often wrote their own opinions.
508 -- Number of Opinions of the Court he authored
3 -- Marshall served in all three branches of government: as a US Representative, Secretary of State and Chief Justice
What to Wear?
Many of the Court's traditions were determined early in its history, such as what to wear. Drawing inspiration from English tradition, the Justices settled on simple black robes.
On Their Best Behavior:
Think it's a job for life? Justices actually hold their offices during "good Behavior," but can be removed from office through impeachment, similar to a president.
Only one Justice has faced an impeachment trial. In 1804, Samuel Chase was accused of expressing political beliefs from the Bench. Chase was acquitted on all counts which was seen as a victory for the independence of the Judiciary.
The Final Word:
Several cases during this period defined the Court's role in the federal government. The first case in which the Court used the power of judicial review -- the power to rule acts of the other branches of government unconstitutional -- came in Marbury v. Madison (1803). In so doing, the Court stated clearly that it would be the final authority on interpreting the Constitution.
Going to the People:
In addition to hearing Supreme Court cases, each Justice rode a circuit, or region of the country, acting as a circuit court judge. The Justices disliked this aspect of their job as travel was difficult, accommodations were poor, and they were away from their families for extended periods.
Testing New Waters:
Much of the early Court's docket was filled with maritime trade cases such as:
* Murray v. Schooner Charming Betsy (1804)
* US v. Cargo of Ship Fanny (1815)
* Two Hundred Chests of Tea (1824)
1789: US Constitution Adopted
1790: Supreme Court meets for the first time
1793: Chisholm v. Georgia
1803: Louisiana Purchase
1803: Marbury v. Madison
1807: Seventh seat added to the Bench
1810: Fletcher v. Peck
1812-1815: War of 1812
1814: British burn US Capitol
1819: McCulloch vs Maryland Dartmouth College case
1820: Missouri Compromise
1823: Monroe Doctrine proclaimed
1824: Gibbons v. Ogden
1825: Erie Canal opens
1830: Indian Removal Act leads to Trail of Tears
SCI_150213_124.JPG: The Daniel Daguerreotypes
One day in the early 1850s, Associate Justice Peter V. Daniel walked into a photographic studio to have his picture taken. It was one of just two times he is known to have been photographed. A few minutes later Justice Daniel was able to see the results for himself, and walked away with a single portrait that would be passed down in his family for generations. Another portrait taken that same day was recently discovered, and the two are reunited here for the first time in 160 years.
What is a Daguerreotype?
Daguerreotypes are black-and-white photographs on highly polished silver-coated plates rather than paper. Each is a one-of-a-kind original -- these plates in front of your were actually in the camera when Justice Daniel sat for his portrait. After photography was introduced to the world in the late 1830s, the daguerreotype process became its dominant and most popular form for twenty years. By 1860, however, competitive processes which let a photographer make multiple prints from a single negative brought an end to the daguerreotype era and its magical silver plates.
Justice Daniel:
Justice Peter V. Daniel was born in 1784 near Fredericksburg, Virginia. His early career included service in the Virginia House of Delegates and on the US District Court for Eastern Virginia. In 1841, he was appointed by President Martin Van Buren to the Supreme Court to the Supreme Court of the United States, and served until his death in 1860. He was a strong supporter of states' rights, of a limited federal government, and was vigorously pro-slavery -- in his concurring opinion for the landmark 1857 case of Fred Scot v. Sandford, he declared that even freed black slaves could not be citizens.
The Story of the Three Plates:
Justice Daniel's portrait session took place at one of J.H. (Jesse Harrison) Whitehurst's several Daguerrian galleries, most likely the one here in Washington, DC. At least three photographic plates of Daniels were made that day, although he kept only one (center). It descended in the family until being donated by his great-great grandson and namesake, Peter V. Daniel of Lynchburg, Virginia.
The other plates were probably kept by the Whitehurst Gallery and displayed as examples of their work. One of these plates (left) was discovered at auction and acquired with the assistance of the Supreme Court Historical Society. Another plate, currently lost, was copied in the 1860s by Mathew Brady's studio (right). In photography's early years it was not unheard of for a rival photographer -- in this case, Brady's studio -- to acquire a photograph by another and resell it under their name.
SCI_150213_135.JPG: Daguerreotype plate probably kept by the Whitehurst Gallery and recently discovered
SCI_150213_138.JPG: Daguerreotype plate kept by Justice Daniel and descended in the Daniel Family
SCI_150213_152.JPG: Mounted carte de visite albumen plate (enlarged digital facsimile) of a lost daguerreotype plate copied by Mathew Brady / E.H. Anthony & Sons, c. 1865. Courtesy of the US Senate Collection
SCI_150213_157.JPG: The Courtroom Bench:
A section of the original mahogany Bench facade from the Supreme Court Chamber in the US Capitol, where the Court met from 1860 to 1935. As is still the practice today, nine individual desks for the Justices are houses behind the Bench facade.
Photograph c 1900.
SCI_150213_160.JPG: The Courtroom Bench:
A section of the original mahogany Bench facade from the Supreme Court Chamber in the US Capitol, where the Court met from 1860 to 1935. As is still the practice today, nine individual desks for the Justices are houses behind the Bench facade.
(left) Photograph of the Bench in the Supreme Court Chamber, by Barnett M. Clinedinst, Jr., c 1900.
SCI_150213_163.JPG: 1874-1910: The Waite and Fuller Courts
Chief Justice Morrison R. Waite, 1874-1888, appointed by Grant
Chief Justice Melville W. Fuller, 1888-1910, appointed by Cleveland
100 Years in the Making:
You're invited to a Centennial Celebration! Join us on February 4, 1890 to celebrate 100 years of Supreme Court decision-making. Events will be held throughout New York City, the Courts first meeting place. Festivities will culminate in a grand banquet for 2,000 guests at the Lenox Lyceum.
Branding Justice:
The Justices of the late 19th century were well-known public figures frequently featured in news and social columns. Advertisers used their recognizable images, often without the Justices' knowledge. These ads suggested to consumers that the Court had "judged" their product to be superior to others.
Separate but Equal:
Now considered among the most controversial decisions in its history, the Court sanctioned the "separate but equal" doctrine in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), declaring that separate facilities for races were legal as long as they were equal. This ruling legitimized the segregated society created through Jim Crow laws. It was not until Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 that the separate but equal doctrine was overturned.
Working From Home:
With limited space in the US Capitol, the Justices worked from their homes, and messengers delivered correspondence between houses. It wa snot until the Supreme Court Building was constructed in 1935 that offices were provided for all the Justices.
Among Friends:
Justices often serve many years together. Despite difficult cases and disagreements, they strive to remain cordial. The tradition of the judicial handshake is attributed to Chief Justice Fuller. Before meeting in Court or Conference, all of the Justices shake hands as a sign of camaraderie.
Balancing Business:
The fast-growing economy of the late 19th century led to a large number of cases before the Court involving business and labor relations. The Justices were asked to interpret the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, prohibiting monopolies in business, and several labor laws relating to wages and working hours.
We Need Help!
With a growing docket and increasingly complicated cases, the Justices needed help to review cases and write opinions. In 1882, Justice Horace Gray became the first Justice to hire law clerks. Today the Justices can hire up to four law clerks each Term.
1874: First Impressionist art exhibition in Paris
1876: Hayes-Tilden election crisis
1876: Bell patents telephone
1879: Edison invents the light bulb
1879: First woman admitted to the Supreme Court Bar: Belva Lockwood
1890: Supreme Court's Centennial
1893: The Ferris Wheel debuts at the World's Columbian Exposition
1895: Income Tax case
1896: Plessy v. Ferguson
1898: Spanish-American War
1903: Wright Brothers first flight
1905: Lochner v. New York
1908: First Model T car produced
1908: Miller v. Oregon
1909: NAACP founded
SCI_150213_176.JPG: 1953-2005: The Warren, Burger, and Rehnquist Courts
Chief Justice Earl Warren, 1953-1969, appointed by Eisenhower
Chief Justice Warren E. Burger, 1969-1986, appointed by Nixon
Chief Jutice William H. Rehnquist, 1986-2005, appointed by Reagan
Separate is NOT Equal:
Among the most well-known cases of the 20th century is Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka (1954). This landmark decision overturned the precedent set in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896), which permitted segregation to continue as long as separate facilities were considered equal.
Through efforts led largely byt he NAACP, lawsuits were filed as early as the 1930s claiming that segregation was unconstitutional. Their efforts culminated in Brown v. Board when the Court unanimously announced that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. This decision was a catalyst that led to the end of segregation in America.
You Have the Right...
A new focus on the extent of civil rights and liberties for all Americans brought the Court to the forefront of national debates as they were asked to determine how the Constitution applied to and protected these freedoms.
1963: Right to council: Gideon v. Wainwright
1965: Right to privacy: Griswold v. Connecticut
1966: Reading rights upon arrest: Miranda v. Arizona
1969: Right to free speech in schools: Tinker v. Des Moines
1973: Women's reproductive rights: Roe v. Wade
New Faces on the Bench:
The last half of the 20th century saw the first African American and the first women join the Court. Thurgood Marshall, who gained fame arguing for the NAACP in cases such as Brown v. Board, was appointed to the Court in 1967. Fourteen years later, noted judge Sandra Day O'Connor joined the Court.
Other Duties as Assigned:
The Justices meet in Conference to review petitions, as well as to discuss and vote on cases heard during oral argument. Only the Justices are allowed in the room, therefore the junior Justice acts as the "doorkeeper," sending and receiving any messages or materials. Justice Stephen G. Breyer held this position longer than any other modern day Justice, waiting eleven and a half years for a new member to arrive.
Judicial Fashions:
The 1990s saw changes in the traditional black robes worn by the Justices.
Justice Sandra Day O'Connor chose to complete her robe with a jabot, or lace neckpiece, a practice continued by Justice Ginsburg.
Chief Justice Rehnquist added gold stripes on the sleeves of his robe, inspired by a costume he saw in an opera.
1954: Brown v. Board
1957: Elvis releases "Jailhouse Rock"
1963: Martin Luther King's "I have a dream" speech
1963: Gideon v. Wainwright
1966: Miranda v. Arizona
1967: First African American Justice: Thurgood Marshall
1969: Man on the moon
1972: Watergate break-in
1974: US v. Nixon
1975: US troops leave Vietnam
1977: Star Wars released
1981: First woman Justice: Sandra Day O'Connor
1989: Fall of the Berlin Wall
1989: Texas v. Johnson
1990: Americans with Disabilities Act
1991: First website created
1992: Planned Parenthood v. Casey
2000: Bush v. Gore
2001: September 11 attacks
SCI_150213_183.JPG: 1930-1953: The Hughes, Stone, and Vinson Courts
Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes, 1930-1941, appointed by Hoover
Chief Justice Harlan F. Stone, 1941-1946, appointed by F. Roosevelt
Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson, 1946-1953, appointed by Truman
Extra-Judicial Activities:
As Americans rallied to support the US in World War II, several Justices took on special assignments.
Justice Owen J. Roberts conducted a government inquiry into the bombing of Pearl Harbor.
Justice Robert H. Jackson was appointed to prosecute Nazi war criminals in the Nuremberg war trials.
The New Supreme Court Building By the Neighbors:
1935 -- The Supreme Court Building opens
455,000 -- Cubic feet of marble used to construct the building
35 -- Officers on the new Supreme Court Police force
9 -- Chambers for the Justices, who previously worked from home
93,532 -- Dollars returned to the government after construction
Popular in the Press:
The Justices continued to be popular public figures and the Court was a regular feature in the press. Chief Justice Hughes, known for his bushy moustache and beard, came to represent the Court in cartoons and caricatures. Many of the Justices used their popularity to make a difference during World War II, leading bond drives and radio broadcasts to benefit charities.
Fifteen Justices?
Conflict arose between the Executive and the Judiciary in the 1930s over President Franklin D. Roosevelt's sweeping New Deal policies. Frustrated with the Court for ruling parts of his legislation unconstitutional, Roosevelt proposed to increase the number of Justices, saying it would help with their heavy workload. The plan was seen as an attempt to "pack" the Court with members who would vote for the President's policies and it failed in Congress.
Courting a Judicial Job:
By the 1930s, the practice of Justices hiring law clerks had become institutionalized. These law school graduates aid the Justices in research and opinion writing. Today, most law clerks serve in clerkships for lower court judges before beginning a one-year term at the Supreme Court.
Working at the Court served as a valuable learning experience for several future Justices. Byron R. White, William H. Rehnquist, and John Paul Stevens served as law clerks in the 1940-50s.
1931: Empire State Building opens
1932: Scottsboro Boys case
1933: New Deal legislation begins
1935: Social Security Act
1935: Supreme Court Building opens
1937: FDR's Court Packing Plan
1939: The Wizard of Oz opens in theaters
1941: Attack on Pearl Harbor
1941: US enters World War II
1942: Nazi Saboteur case
1944: Korematsu v. US
1945: United States formed
1948: Truman integrates military
1950: US troops sent to South Korea
1952: Steel Seizure case
1953: DNA double helix structure discovered
SCI_150213_192.JPG: 1910-1930: The White and Taft Courts:
Chief Justice Edward D. White, 1910-1921, appointed by Taft
Chief Justice William H. Taft, 1921-1930, appointed by Harding
Choosing a Case:
The Judiciary Act of 1925 changed the federal court system into what we know today. The Act helped limit the overwhelming case load before the Court by allowing the Justices to choose which appeals they would hear.
The Rule of Four specifies that if four Justices vote to hear a case, it will be placed on the docket. They consider many factors, including:
* Has the case been ruled in a contradictory manner in lower courts?
* Is it a constitutional matter of national importance?
Taft Remakes the Court:
Before becoming Chief Justice, William H. Taft greatly influenced the Court during his service as president. In 1910, he filled five vacancies on the Court in one year, ore than any president since George Washington.
Branching Out:
Although there are no set requirements to become a Justice, many nominees have judicial or political backgrounds. This era saw two Justices with presidential inclinations. In 1916, Charles Evans Hughes resigned from the Bench to run as a candidate. He returned to the Court in 1930 to serve as Chief Justice. In 1921, former President William H. Taft joined the Court as Chief Justice.
The End of Circuit Riding:
For the first 100 years of the Court's history the Justices rode across the country hearing cases in the circuit, or region, assigned to them. This task became an overwhelming burden on the Justices and the practice officially ended in 1911. Since then, the Justices continue to be involved in circuit court activities, with a Justice assigned to oversee and advise on one or more circuits.
Time Crunch:
Oral argument serves as a time for attorneys to outline their points and answer the Justices' questions. Initially there was no time limit, with arguments stretching on for days. Over its history, the Court has continued to limit time for oral argument.
1911 -- 1-1/2 hours per side.
1918 -- 1 hour per side.
1970 -- 1/2 hour per side, where it remains today
Checks and Balances:
Although it is the highest Court in the land, the Court's power is not absolute. If the citizens feel strongly enough, the Court's decision can be changed through an amendment to the Constitution. In 1895, the Justices said that an income tax was unconstitutional. Their decision was overturned in 1913 with the passage of the 16th Amendment, authorizing a tax on income.
1911: Standard Oil case
1912: The Titanic sinks
1916: First Jewish Justice: Louis D. Brandeis
1917: US enters World War I
1917: Selective Service Act creates the draft
1920: Women's right to vote approved
1920: Prohibition begins
1921: Former President Taft becomes Chief Justice
1924: Quick frozen food invented
1925: The Great Gatsby is published
1925: Judiciary Act of 1925 is passed
1928: Mickey Mouse created
1929: Stock market crashes
1929: Design for the Supreme Court Building revealed
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