BGuthrie Photos: DC -- Natl Museum of Natural History -- Exhibit: Last American Dinosaurs

DC -- Natl Museum of Natural History -- Exhibit: Last American Dinosaurs:

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Description of Pictures: The Last American Dinosaurs: Discovering a Lost World
November 25, 2014 – 2018 (TBA)
Explore how we learn about past ecosystems and organisms through the study of their fossils and take a peek "behind the curtain" to see what goes into making a new, large-scale fossil exhibition. See “Hatcher” the Triceratops, a Tyrannosaurus skull, other fossils from the same ecosystem as “Hatcher.” Watch fossils being prepared in a working fossil preparation lab.

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Copyrights: All pictures were taken by amateur photographer Bruce Guthrie (me!) who retains copyright on them. Free for non-commercial use with attribution. See the [Creative Commons] definition of what this means. "Photos (c) Bruce Guthrie" is fine for attribution. (Commercial use folks including AI scrapers can of course contact me.) Feel free to use in publications and pages with attribution but you don't have permission to sell the photos themselves. A free copy of any printed publication using any photographs is requested. Descriptive text, if any, is from a mixture of sources, quite frequently from signs at the location or from official web sites; copyrights, if any, are retained by their original owners.

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Specific picture descriptions: Photos above with "i" icons next to the bracketed sequence numbers (e.g. "[1] ") are described as follows:
1. SINHLA_150909_001.JPG: The Last American Dinosaurs Discovering a Lost World Meet some of the last great dinosaurs to roam North America, and discover how their reign crashed to an end 66 million years ago. Only one dinosaur group -- birds -- survived. The specimens in this exhibit all came from the Hell Creek Formation, a fossil-rich layer of rocks in Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota. Join us as we look at dinosaur, plant, and animal fossils from this unique deposit, opening a window into another time.
2. SINHLA_150909_008.JPG: A Work in Progress: Science is never finished. New discoveries come to light all the time, constantly changing how scientists look at the world. With this in mind, we designed this exhibit as a work in progress, too. Here you'll see some of the most spectacular dinosaurs from the Museum's enormous fossil collection and discover how scientists unlock the stories of their lives.
3. SINHLA_150909_011.JPG: Big Head Not-so-Big Brain: Triceratops had such an enormous head that you might expect it had a brain to match. But this huge plant-eater got along on a relative small brain, by mammal standards. This doesn't mean that Triceratops lacked brain power. Relative to body size, the body was similar in size to that of a crocodile. Real Fossil or Cast? This skull is an actual fossil with a reconstructed horn, and the skeleton of Triceratops is a cast. Museum-quality casts and scanned replicas aren't fakes. They're exact copies of real fossils that capture even minute details of structure.
4. SINHLA_150909_020.JPG: A Highly Decorated Family: Triceratops belonged to the ceratopsids, a family of plant-eating dinosaurs with horns, knobs, and frills in a wild array of shapes and sizes. Some had horns above the eyes and along the frill, while others grew only a nose horn.
5. SINHLA_150909_030.JPG: Is This the Whole Horn? Only the bony core you see here was hard enough to fossilize. But when Triceratops was alive, the core was sheathed by another horn made of fingernail-like keratin, so it was longer and more pointed. The core is an accurate replica of the actual fossil, made by Museum staff. We store important, real specimens in the Museum's collections for safekeeping and scientific study.
6. SINHLA_150909_043.JPG: Look at Me! Like a peacock's elaborate tail fan, the frill of Triceratops made for a good show. Just seeing a dinosaur with this eye-catching structure would have impressed potential mates and rivals. Some scientists think the frill might have been colorful, too, and certain horned dinosaurs even had spikes or horns along the edges of the frill.
7. SINHLA_150909_046.JPG: Not Just for Show: If a striking appearance didn't drive off rivals and predators, Triceratops was equipped for a fight. How do we know? Researchers have unearthed skulls of Triceratops with healed puncture wounds -- evidence that these animals probably used their horns in contests with other Triceratops, much as animals such as rhinos do today.
8. SINHLA_150909_049.JPG: Small Teeth for a Big Job: Triceratops ate plants -- lots of them -- using its sharp beak to nip off vegetation and a set of continuously replaced teeth to chew tough, fibrous food. Each tooth was small, and they grew in stacks. The stacks formed long rows in the upper and lower jaws and created large cutting surfaces for crushing and slicing food. Teeth dropped out constantly, so the cutting edges always stayed sharp.
9. SINHLA_150909_053.JPG: Big Meals for Big Guts: Triceratops ate and ate and ate, probably both day and night. Living on a diet of plants requires a sizable digestive tract, and the dinosaur's stomach and intestines probably filled much of its barrel-shaped abdomen. Like cows today, Triceratops probably had countless bacteria and fungi in their guts that helped break down plant cellulose into glucose and other nutrients.
10. SINHLA_150909_057.JPG: What is Paleontology? It's the study of ancient life, and it builds on knowledge from geology and biology. Scientists in the field are called paleontologists, and they look at fossils to learn about past environments, evolution, and the history of life on earth.
11. SINHLA_150909_059.JPG: What's the Time Period? It's 66-68 million years ago -- the two-million-year period just before an asteroid impact wiped out many of Earth's animal and plant species. This was the most recent of five great mass extinctions in our planet's history. It marks the close of the Cretaceous Period -- and the end of the Age of Dinosaurs. How long ago is 66 million years? It's hard to image such a mind-boggling amount of time. So try this: open and close your hands quickly. Each time you do it represents a year. Now picture doing this 24/7 for two years. That's how long you'd have to "flash" your hands to represent 66 million years.
12. SINHLA_150909_063.JPG: 66 MYA What's the Time Period? It's 66-68 million years ago -- the two-million-year period just before an asteroid impact wiped out many of Earth's animal and plant species. This was the most recent of five great mass extinctions in our planet's history. It marks the close of the Cretaceous Period -- and the end of the Age of Dinosaurs. How long ago is 66 million years? It's hard to image such a mind-boggling amount of time. So try this: open and close your hands quickly. Each time you do it represents a year. Now picture doing this 24/7 for two years. That's how long you'd have to "flash" your hands to represent 66 million years.
13. SINHLA_150909_064.JPG: What makes a dinosaur a dinosaur? Generally, we recognize dinosaurs as a particular group of reptiles with a huge diversity of sizes and shapes. They differ from other reptiles in the structure of their hips and hind legs -- dinosaurs held the hind legs close to the body. For more than 160 million years, they were the dominant backboned animals on land. Today, only birds trace their ancestry back to dinosaurs.
14. SINHLA_150909_067.JPG: What's the Setting: Today, it's western North America. For researchers prospecting for dinosaurs, the Western Interior of North America is a fossil bonanza. Sixty-six million years ago, global climate was warmer than today, and an inland sea ran through part of the continent. Dinosaurs, along with many other plant and animal species, flourished east and west of the sea. Today, the extraordinary cache of fossils buried in this region helps us reconstruct an ancient world. North America: 66 Million Years Ago: Fossil-rich layers of sedimentary rock in western North America preserve the final two million years of dinosaurs' history. The layers cut across four states. They're called the Hell Creek Formation in Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota. In Wyoming, they're the Lance Formation. The deposit also extends north into Canada.
15. SINHLA_150909_073.JPG: North America: 66 Million Years Ago: Fossil-rich layers of sedimentary rock in western North America preserve the final two million years of dinosaurs' history. The layers cut across four states. They're called the Hell Creek Formation in Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota. In Wyoming, they're the Lance Formation. The deposit also extends north into Canada.
16. SINHLA_150909_079.JPG: An Amazing Diversity of Dinosaurs: Paleontologists have uncovered fossils from all these dinosaurs in the rocks of Hell Creek Formation. A few were huge like Triceratops, but many smaller species lived alongside the giants. Finding such a diversity of dinosaurs gives ua a remarkably detailed picture of how they lived. Most were plant-eaters (herbivores), a few ate plants and animals (omnivores), and just three lived on meat (carnivores). How do we know? Mainly from studying the shapes of their teeth and jaws.
17. SINHLA_150909_086.JPG: The Cow of the Cretaceous: Using a horny, toothless bill to crop off plants, Edmontosaurus ground up massive mouthfuls of food with hundreds of teeth packed in the back of its jaws. The individual teeth were small, but they were arranged in numerous stacks with as many as six teeth each. The teeth grew continuously, pushing out the old ones as they wore down.
18. SINHLA_150909_088.JPG: Edmontosaurus Mural: Dinosaurs are long gone. So, scientists and artists like Karen Carr use their creativity and knowledge of fossils, living organisms, and modern landscapes to bring lost worlds to life. Clues from Fossil Fragments: A fossil's shape tells paleontologists what kind of animal it belonged to. Then scientists fill in missing details by comparing the species of its known relatives. Artists who understand how animals move put all this information together. Reconstructing the Dinosaur's World: Edmontosaurus's broad beak and massive sets of teeth indicate that this species consumed plants -- lots of plants. A herd of hadrosaurs could have devastated vast areas of vegetation while feeding. How do we Know Edmontosaurus Traveled in Herds? Scientists have uncovered duck-billed dinosaurs buried together. These fossils suggest that young and old, males and females of the same species traveled in groups of hundreds or maybe even thousands.
19. SINHLA_150909_092.JPG: What Do Fossils Reveal About Edmontosaurus? Time: 66-68 million years ago Ate: plants Length: up to 39 feet (12 m) Weight: up to 9,000 pounds (about 4 metric tons)
20. SINHLA_150909_097.JPG: Bringing Triceratops to "Life" How does paleo artist Mauricio Anton portray an extinct Triceratops? He consults scientists and relies on his own knowledge of dinosaur and living animal anatomy. But some features are artistic "best guesses" based on living animals. Scaly Skin: Large scales left microscopic traces on Triceratop's skull. Artists study these marks to draw the detailed scale pattern on the dinosaur's face. Cheeks or a Beak? Anton drew both muscular cheeks and the muscles connecting Triceratops's upper and lower jaws. But curator Hans Sues thiks Triceratops could have had a longer beak instead of mammal-like cheeks. Heads Up (Or Down): Anton could have drawn Triceratops's head in a number of positions, since the dinosaur had a flexible neck joint. But this neutral position gives you a nice profile view. Skin Color? See the faint patterns on Triceratops? Dinosaurs may have had stripes like these to ward off biting insects, blend into backgrounds, or attract mates, but scientists don't know. So artistss have to use their imaginations.
21. SINHLA_150909_101.JPG: Picturing the Past: The differences between these two paintings might seem subtle at first. But compare the dinosaurs' stances and see how each conveys a sense of drama in this classic face-off. The two works, painted more than 80 years apart, illustrate how much we've learned about dinosaurs. Knight's work was based on the best scientific information of his time. But new fossil finds and theories continue to change how we look at the past. (Top) Tyannosaurus and Triceratops: By Charles R. Knight for the Field Museum, Chicago 1927 One of the first artists to depict dinosaurs interacting, Knight gave the public either earliest glimpse of fleshed-out dinosaurs. His work remained iconic for generations. (Bottom) A Moment of Tension By Keiji Terakoshi 2010 Terakoshi has illustrated a number of books on dinosaurs. This work was illustrated for There Once Lived Dinosaurs. Stance: (1927) Passive (2010) More active and agile Body Posture: (1927) More upright (2010) More dynamic pose. Balanced on one leg Tail: (1927) Held low (2010) Extended straight for balance
22. SINHLA_150909_110.JPG: Tyannosaurus and Triceratops: By Charles R. Knight for the Field Museum, Chicago 1927 One of the first artists to depict dinosaurs interacting, Knight gave the public either earliest glimpse of fleshed-out dinosaurs. His work remained iconic for generations.
23. SINHLA_150909_112.JPG: A Moment of Tension By Keiji Terakoshi 2010 Terakoshi has illustrated a number of books on dinosaurs. This work was illustrated for There Once Lived Dinosaurs.
24. SINHLA_150909_115.JPG: Changing Looks: The anatomy of the two older models looks very different from the recent one on the right. When Gilmore and Knight sculpted them over a century ago, they had few horned dinosaur fossils to work from, and even scientists saw dinosaurs as just big reptiles. The spiny ridges on Knight's squat Triceratops were based on a skull fragment later identified as belonging to another kind of dinosaur. Gilmore's model has odd proportions because it's based on several different skeletons.
25. SINHLA_150909_117.JPG: Triceratops model, probably around 1900: Bronze cast of the model, Charles R. Knight
26. SINHLA_150909_119.JPG: Triceratops model, 1905 Bronze cast of the model Charles W. Gilmore
27. SINHLA_150909_123.JPG: Triceratops model, 2014
28. SINHLA_150909_130.JPG: Growth Spurts: Triceratops grew fast, and, if lucky enough to make it to adulthood, probably lived just a few decades. Paleontologists think many dinosaur species had a similar life span. Scientists research growth rates in Triceratops and other dinosaurs by comparing fossils from many individuals so they can better understand their life cycles.
29. SINHLA_150909_133.JPG: Bringing up Baby: With their large eyes and short snouts, these two skulls of Triceratops clearly come from young animals. Scientists have unearthed dozens of adult skulls. But finding fossils from youngsters like these is rare. Notice the budding horns and simple frills. They're early hints of the impressive headgear carried by a full-grown Triceratops like the one to your left.
30. SINHLA_150909_140.JPG: What do fossils reveal about Tyrannosaurus? Time: 66-68 million years ago Ate: meat and bone Length: about 40 feet (12.3 m) Weight: up to 15,500 pounds (7 metric tons)
31. SINHLA_150909_142.JPG: Killer or Scavenger? Scientists now think Tyrannosaurus, like most predators, feasted on whatever it found or killed. Some of the fossil bones from the Hell Creek deposit have tooth marks from T. rex, but it's impossible to know whether the animals were taken dead or alive. However, a broken tooth from T. rex was discovered in a healed wound on the tail of a duck-billed dinosaur -- a sure sign that the dinosaur went after live prey. What Big Teeth You Have! Most meat-eating dinosaurs had bladelike teeth for slicing up prey. But T. rex had banana-shaped teeth with pointed tips and serrated edges that cut through flesh and smashed bone. Like all dinosaurs, T. rex shed old teeth and grew new ones throughout its life. Feel the edges -- they're serrated like a steak knife to cut through flesh. Who Wins? Actually, T. rex and Triceratops were very well matched. T. rex had the advantage of height and massive teeth, but it carried seven tons of weight on its back legs, and the arms were tiny. In contrast, Triceratops was an imposing four-footed herbivore with huge pointed horns. Young and very old or sick Triceratops made more likely targets for a hungry T. rex.
32. SINHLA_150909_148.JPG: Getting Ready: The Nation's T. Rex: Another Tyrannosaurus rex will take over when the renovated Fossil Hall opens in 2019. It's the Nation's T. rex, one of the largest, most complete skeletons of this species ever found. Right now, our new T. rex is out of the building being assembled for display. Comeback when it takes center stage in its new home.
33. SINHLA_150909_151.JPG: Armed for What? Scientists still don't know, why T. rex had such small, but functional, arms. Some suggest that the arms might have steadied thrashing prey or helped the dinosaur get up after a rest. The arms were even too short to reach the mouth. But the stout bones, powerful muscles, and large claws they served some purpose. What do you think it was? We May Never Know... What color was T. rex? Because no skin pigments have been preserved, there's no way to know what color it was. Did T. rex have feathers? Some earlier relatives had features, so it's possible Tyrannosaurus had them, too -- most likely when young. But no feather impressions have turned up yet. What kind of parent was T. rex? We're not sure. None of the dinosaur's nests or effs have been found so far. Dinosaur parenting styles varied from species to species, just as the parenting habits of birds do today.
34. SINHLA_150909_153.JPG: Could you Escape Tyrannosaurus? It depends. T. rex probably ambushed prey or chased after it briefly. Scientists estimate that the huge predator couldn't move faster than 25 miles an hour. A strong sprinter can run at about 12 mph. Still, you might have a chance, depending on how tired or full the T. rex happened to be. Is T. rex Related to Birds? There are some striking similarities, and both T. rex and birds belonged to a group of dinosaurs known as theropods. But as flight evolved in birds, their anatomy changed in significant ways and diverged from the lineage leading to T. rex. That means T. rex is not a big bird. Differences: (1) Large, powerful tail of T. rex helped balance weight over the hips. Early birds had long tails, but later birds evolved a tail fan that helps maneuver in the air. (2) Short arms of T. rex are still a mystery. The arm bones in birds became longer to support wings. (3) Wishbone is found in birds and predatory dinosaurs. In birds, the wishbone stores and transmits energy as the wings flap. The wishbone's function in T. rex is unknown. Similarities: (4) Three-toed feet (5) Hind legs are held close to the body. (6) Strong hip muscles allow walking on hind legs, instead of all fours. (7) Air spaces in the bones are part of a specialized lung system that increases breathing capacity.
35. SINHLA_150909_159.JPG: Big Meals, Big Results: See the white fragments in this fossilized poop from Tyrannosaurus? They're undigested bone, which shows that this predator crushed its food, bones and all, and gulped it down in chunks. Fresh dung is usually soft, of course. But it sometimes fossilized if buried before it could decompose. Know as coprolite, hard evidence like this helps us reconstruct ancient animals' worlds. Coprolite can contain bits of insects, plants, pollen, and whatever else an animal ate recently and didn't completely digest. Minced bone shows the force of the dinosaur's bite. Notice the fragments of fibrous bone (outlined) in this close of Tyrannosaurus poop? It shows that the dinosaur crushed its prey before eating, but didn't digest its meals very efficiently.
36. SINHLA_150909_162.JPG: What's This? There's no question that this is fossilized poop, or coprolite, from Tyrannosaurus, it was the only meat-eating dinosaur in Late Cretaceous Montana that was large enough to produce a coprolite this big.
37. SINHLA_150909_166.JPG: Imagine the world 66 million years ago Overall this scene might look familiar ... except for the dinosaurs. The setting is western North America, where Edmontosaurus and other dinosaurs roamed forested floodplains. Some of the plants and animals you see are ancestors of living species, but many others are extinct and look very unfamiliar. Globally, the climate was warmer then. There were no polar ice caps, and the ocean had flooded low-lying lands with shallow seas. The continents were slowly moving toward their current positions. North America 66 Million Years Ago: Sea levels were high, and an inland sea cut partway through North America. Plants and animals adapted to living in a rainy, subtropical environment thrived here.
38. SINHLA_150909_205.JPG: Ecosystem Mural: Getting dinosaurs to look right isn't the only challenge facing artists like Mary Parrish. They have to figure out what species to include, and where to place each plant and animal. A creek meander through a forest. Sound simple? Think again. Parrish filled the foreground with water to hold the relatively small aquatic species scientists wanted to include. But were to put all the land animals? She decided to emphasize the depth of the image by fitting huge Edmontosaurus and cat-sized Didelphodon into the same scene. Space constraints: Designing the ancient scene to work with all the other exhibit elements was a challenge. Notice how Parrish's painting flows from the modern photo and works around the blocks of text and specimen cases? Diversity vs Realism: Parrish and the scientists wanted to showcase Hell Creek's diversity while keeping the scene uncluttered. They couldn't include every species, but there are more animals here than you would normally see together in a natural habitat.
39. SINHLA_150909_208.JPG: Leaf Slab
40. SINHLA_150909_209.JPG: Stepping Back in Time: For at least two million years, Tyrannosaurus and Triceratops lived and died in western North America. That's a long period of time and a large area, and it's a challenge to recreate their world. Paleontologists build a picture of the past by looking at scattered clues -- bones, teeth, plants, footprints, roots -- and comparing them to what they see in modern ecosystems. Like photos in an old family album, fossils open a window into another time.
41. SINHLA_150909_211.JPG: Baena hatcheri Turtle (shell) Late Cretaceous, 66-68 million years ago A common turtle that thrived for millions of years, Baena lived through the mass extinction that killed the dinosaurs, only to die out afterward.
42. SINHLA_150909_215.JPG: 66 Million Years Ago
43. SINHLA_150909_217.JPG: What Doomed the Dinosaurs? Sixty-six million years ago, a massive asteroid slammed into Earth. Within seconds, jets of melted rock shot up, tsunamis raced across the ocean, the firestorms broke out. Dust and debris hung in the atmosphere for weeks, if not months, blocking sunlight and cooling the planet. Combined with other global changes, the impact dealt dinosaurs -- except for birds -- a swift and fatal blow. But many other organisms survived and eventually flourished on a changed earth. How Big? Scientists estimate the asteroid was about six miles in diameter -- bigger than Mt. Everest, the highest mountain on Earth. To get an idea of the crater's size, imagine the asteroid hitting the DC area. The crater would extend to Baltimore. Life Changed in a Flash: The asteroid impact triggered a catastrophe. Life closest to the crash site died instantly, and ecosystems worldwide quickly began to collapse. Why such devastation? Many factors probably played a part. Global climates were already changing, and particles from massive volcanoes in India clouded the atmosphere. But where on Earth the asteroid hit may have made it even more damaging. It landed in sulfur-rich marine deposits, and scientists think some of the debris caused acid rain.
44. SINHLA_150909_222.JPG: How Big? Scientists estimate the asteroid was about six miles in diameter -- bigger than Mt. Everest, the highest mountain on Earth. To get an idea of the crater's size, imagine the asteroid hitting the DC area. The crater would extend to Baltimore.
45. SINHLA_150909_234.JPG: How Did the Dinosaurs Die? Most dinosaurs probably survived the asteroid impact but died in the aftermath as ecosystems collapsed. The skies would have been dark with soot and debris, plunging Earth into a temporary period of global cooling. Environments fell apart as plants withered and died, plant-eating dinosaurs starved, and carnivores such as T. rex soon followed.
46. SINHLA_150909_237.JPG: From Death to Discovery: Only a tiny fraction of all the plants and animals that ever lived left fossils. Natural processes broke down and recycled everything else back into the ecosystem. How do we find these remains of ancient life? For early paleontologists, it was often by chance. Today, previous discoveries and studies of geology and past environments tell researchers where to look. Then begins the hard word of excavating and preparing new finds for scientific study.
47. SINHLA_150909_265.JPG: Fresh from the Field: Smithsonian staff excavated the fossils in these cases from the Hell Creek Formation near Marmarth, North Dakota. It's one of the few places on Earth that preserves fossils from before and after the asteroid impact that brought down the last American dinosaurs. Identifying the new finds takes time. Everything from tiny bone fragments to giant slabs gets shipped back to the Museum where preparation, careful study, and comparison with other specimens in the collection helps paleontologists identify what they found. What do Paleontologists need in the field? They carry five basic things: digging tools, glue in repair or stabilize fossil fragments, packing materials, a camera, and a notebook to record where they dig and what they find. And they bring water -- lots of water -- to keep them going in the hot, dry places where many fossils are found.
48. SINHLA_150909_269.JPG: On a Hell Creek collecting trip, paleontologists Kirk Johnson and Scott Wing split open a rock to reveal perfectly fossilized leaves. The team clears away broken surface rock and soil and chops out big chunks of unweathered rock below to find large, intact leaves like this.
49. SINHLA_150909_274.JPG: How Do We Know... An Asteroid Hit 66 Million Years Ago? It took years of detective work to figure out what doomed the dinosaurs. See what clues led scientists to discover that an asteroid set off the mass extinction. Nowhere else on Earth is the story of what happened to the dinosaurs shown more clearly than in the rock layers of the Hell Creek Formation. Notice that the history of life recorded in rock strata goes in one direction -- the deeper you go, the older the rocks. In the image below, you can see the K/Pg boundary, evidence of the asteroid impact. The "K" stands for Kreide, the German name for Cretaceous, and "Pg" is short for Paleogene. Clue: Spike in Iridium: Researchers discovered high levels of iridium in 66-million-year-old rock layers around the world. The mineral is rare on Earth's surface, but common in asteroids and meteorites. Scientists have identified many sites worldwide with increased amounts of iridium from the asteroid impact. Clue: Giant Impact Crater: From studying the fossil record, scientists knew the extinction was global and happened rapidly, which pointed to a sudden, catastrophic event as the cause. A crater discovered in 1978 under the tip of the Yucatan Peninsula is 66 million years old and 110 miles wide -- just the right age and size to be the asteroid's crash site. Clue: Beads of Clay: The impact blasted droplets of molten rock around the globe. These fell back to Earth as tektites, glassy beads that turned to clay as they aged. Tektites are classic evidence of an impact. Clay spherules from the K/Pg boundary layer in the Hell Creek Formation. Clue: Fractured Quartz: Pressured from the impact altered the structure of quartz grains at the site and blasted the grains around the world. Quartz grains are normally clear, and the microscopic fracture lines resulted from the asteroid's enormous force. Shocked quartz from the K/Pg boundary layers. Giant Boundary Layers: The boundary layers are actually thin sediment deposits of dust and other debris that record the moment of impact.
50. SINHLA_150909_280.JPG: Clue: Giant Impact Crater: From studying the fossil record, scientists knew the extinction was global and happened rapidly, which pointed to a sudden, catastrophic event as the cause. A crater discovered in 1978 under the tip of the Yucatan Peninsula is 66 million years old and 110 miles wide -- just the right age and size to be the asteroid's crash site.
51. SINHLA_150909_282.JPG: Clue: Spike in Iridium: Researchers discovered high levels of iridium in 66-million-year-old rock layers around the world. The mineral is rare on Earth's surface, but common in asteroids and meteorites. Scientists have identified many sites worldwide with increased amounts of iridium from the asteroid impact.
52. SINHLA_150909_284.JPG: Clue: Beads of Clay: The impact blasted droplets of molten rock around the globe. These fell back to Earth as tektites, glassy beads that turned to clay as they aged. Tektites are classic evidence of an impact. Clay spherules from the K/Pg boundary layer in the Hell Creek Formation.
53. SINHLA_150909_287.JPG: Pressured from the impact altered the structure of quartz grains at the site and blasted the grains around the world. Quartz grains are normally clear, and the microscopic fracture lines resulted from the asteroid's enormous force. Shocked quartz from the K/Pg boundary layers.
54. SINHLA_150909_289.JPG: Giant Boundary Layers: The boundary layers are actually thin sediment deposits of dust and other debris that record the moment of impact.
55. SINHLA_150909_290.JPG: What Survived? Animals that were small and lived in fresh water or underground had the best chance of making it through the extinction. Smaller reptiles, birds, and mammals could have survived in burrows and other sheltered places, eating seeds, insects, and rotting plants and animals. Lakes and streams would have sheltered fish and crocodilians. Glades of ferns soon carpeted the landscape. As the climate warmed, trees sprouted from buried seeds. Learning from Extinctions: Extinction is normal -- species don't last forever. The term background extinction refers to the low-level disappearance of species throughout time. A mass extinction occurs rapidly in geologic time, killing huge numbers of species and changing ecosystems. The extinction that killed the dinosaurs is the most recent of five major extinction events in life's history, and the one paleontologists know most about. Discovering more about its effects gives us a framework for understanding the growing number if extinctions today.
56. SINHLA_150909_293.JPG: Learning from Extinctions: Extinction is normal -- species don't last forever. The term background extinction refers to the low-level disappearance of species throughout time. A mass extinction occurs rapidly in geologic time, killing huge numbers of species and changing ecosystems. The extinction that killed the dinosaurs is the most recent of five major extinction events in life's history, and the one paleontologists know most about. Discovering more about its effects gives us a framework for understanding the growing number if extinctions today.
57. SINHLA_150909_295.JPG: How Do We Know... What Happened as Life Recovered? Clue: Fern Spores: Ferns are the first plants to emerge after a disaster -- they spread the spores that germinate quickly. Notice all the fern spores in this scanning electron microscope image from just about the K/Pg boundary layer.
58. SINHLA_150909_300.JPG: Within Tens of Thousands of Years: Forests are widespread Within Years: Fern glades spread, and palms shoot up Within Days: Scattered fires still burn, sunlight is weak
59. SINHLA_150909_313.JPG: Beginning of the Paleogene: Mudstone layer (clay and silt from annual flooding) Worm burrows Coal layer (plant material compressed into rock) Iridium concentration (unusual concentration of rare elements and shocked quartz) K/Pg Boundary (66 MYA): Tektite layer (sperules formed from molten rock ejected into the upper atmosphere) Boundary clay (dust deposited by the debris cloud from the impact blast) End of the Cretaceous: Mudstone layer (clay and silt from an ancient soil) Coal layer (plant material compressed into rock) Soil layer
60. SINHLA_150909_315.JPG: Surviving, then Thriving: The asteroid impact did more than kill the dinosaurs and many of the species on land and in the sea. It changed the course of life, giving the survivors the chance to fill all the suddenly unoccupied spaces across the globe. The descendants of many of these mammals, birds, and other groups still populate our world today. Mammals Get Their Chance: Small mammals that lived through the mass extinction hit a kind of evolutionary jackpot. With the dinosaurs gone, they diversified into a incredible array of shapes and sizes as they evolved to take advantage of new opportunities in the recovering world. In just a few million years (a short time, geologically speaking), the survivors gave rise to most of the major mammal groups we know today. Birds are Dinosaurs: From studying fossils and bird anatomy, paleontologists trace the origins of birds back to small, non-flying theropod dinosaurs -- a diverse group that included Velociraptor. By the time the asteroid hit Earth 66 million years ago, birds had already evolved into a wide range of sizes and shapes. Many disappeared in the mass extinction. The 10,000 or so bird species we known of today trace their ancestry back to those that survived.
61. SINHLA_150909_320.JPG: Mammals Get Their Chance: Small mammals that lived through the mass extinction hit a kind of evolutionary jackpot. With the dinosaurs gone, they diversified into a incredible array of shapes and sizes as they evolved to take advantage of new opportunities in the recovering world. In just a few million years (a short time, geologically speaking), the survivors gave rise to most of the major mammal groups we know today.
62. SINHLA_150909_321.JPG: Are We in Another Mass Extinction? Five times in the past, the diversity of life on Earth has collapsed in a mass extinction. Now, many experts think we're in the midst of a sixth one. Humans are changing the environment in ways that have serious consequences for life. Some species have already disappeared, and many more are threatened. As paleontologists learn more about what happened to life during past extinction events, we're glimpsing what our future could hold.
63. SINHLA_150909_324.JPG: Doing Very Well, Thank You! Despite all the challenges, some adaptable plants and animals will not only survive, they were prosper in the world to come. What's driving their success? * Some species significantly expand their ranges into new territory as climate change alters their habitats. * Invasive species with a high tolerance for change drive out native species that have a hard time adjusting to shifts in their habitats. * Increasing rates of extinction open up new opportunities for adaptable species living on our changing planet.
64. SINHLA_150909_331.JPG: Going... Seven billion people share the planet today, and that number will reach more than nine billion by 2050. The pressure on the environment as human good and energy needs increase has huge consequences for all other life on Earth. More than 40 percent of amphibian species are threatened, one quarter of mammals, and more than a tenth of birds. And there are millions of plants and animals on Earth that we've yet to identify. Many are probably vanishing before we know they exist.
65. SINHLA_150909_341.JPG: Lost Birds: Museums are the only place you'll see these four birds. The moa and dodo vanished in the past 500 years, and the Carolina parakeet and ivory-billed woodpecker went extinct in the 20th century. Without humans, birds naturally go extinct at about one species per century. But the pace is 100 times faster than that today, and it's picking up. Habitat loss probably is the greatest threat, but hunting, invasive species, and climate change are taking an increasing toll.
66. SINHLA_150909_342.JPG: Raphus cucllatus Dodo bird Likely extinct by 1662 Probably lost to hunting and introduced species Habitat: Mauritius Found only in Mauritius in the Indian Ocean, dodos lived without predators for so long that they lost the ability to fly. Portuguese sailors, the first people on the island, landed in the 1500s. But it was the pigs, monkeys, and other animals they introduced that likely sent the dodo into history.
67. SINHLA_150909_346.JPG: Gone: Humans have become a major force of change on the planet. As their populations grew over the past 500 years, hunting and fishing took a huge toll on animals. Natural habitats gave way to farms and town, then cities. People transported exotic species and diseases to environments with no natural defenses. On islands, in particular, vulnerable plants and animals vanished in the face of competition that introduced species such as rats and pigs as well as habitat destruction.
68. SINHLA_150909_353.JPG: The Last American Dinosaurs Discovering a Lost World MYA Meet some of the last great dinosaurs to roam North America, and discover how they reign crashed to an end 66 million years ago. Only one dinosaur group -- birds -- survived. The specimens in this exhibit all come from the Hell Creek Formation, a fossil-rich layer of rocks in Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota. Join us as we look at dinosaur, plant, and animal fossils from this unique deposit, opening a window into another time.
69. SINHLA_150909_355.JPG: The Last American Dinosaurs Discovering a Lost World is made possible by the generous support and partnership of the following individuals and organizations: David H. Koch ...
70. SINHLA_150909_360.JPG: Coming in 2019: The David H. Koch Fossil Hall: The history of life on a grand scale will be told in the huge new exhibit taking shape in our fossil hall. We're conserving thousands of fossils developing media experiences and displays that bring long-lost species and their worlds to life, and restoring the hall's elegant Beaux Arts architecture. The new hall will bring you the latest scientific thinking on the story of life on Earth and show how the past can help inform our choices for the future.
71. SINHLA_150909_367.JPG: Layout Two
72. SINHLA_150909_369.JPG: Layout One
73. SINHLA_150909_371.JPG: Layout Three
74. SINHLA_150909_373.JPG: Layout Four
75. SINHLA_150909_380.JPG: Preliminary redesigned hall layout
76. SINHLA_150909_391.JPG: Content Mapping
77. SINHLA_150909_399.JPG: The Last American Dinosaurs: Discovering a Lost World
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2015 photos: I retired from the US Census Bureau in god-forsaken Suitland, Maryland on my 58th birthday in May. Yee ha! Trips this year: a quick trip to Florida. two Civil War Trust conferences (Raleigh, NC and Richmond, VA), and my 10th consecutive San Diego Comic-Con trip (including Los Angeles). Ego Strokes: Carolyn Cerbin used a Kevin Costner photo in her USA Today article. Miss DC pictures were used a few times in the Washington Post. Equipment this year: I mostly used my Fuji XS-1 camera but, depending on the event, I also used a Nikon D7000. Number of photos taken this year: just over 550,000.
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