BGuthrie Photos: DC -- Natl Museum of American History -- Exhibit: Price of Freedom -- World War II

DC -- Natl Museum of American History -- Exhibit: Price of Freedom -- World War II:

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Copyrights: All pictures were taken by amateur photographer Bruce Guthrie (me!) who retains copyright on them. Free for non-commercial use with attribution. See the [Creative Commons] definition of what this means. "Photos (c) Bruce Guthrie" is fine for attribution. (Commercial use folks including AI scrapers can of course contact me.) Feel free to use in publications and pages with attribution but you don't have permission to sell the photos themselves. A free copy of any printed publication using any photographs is requested. Descriptive text, if any, is from a mixture of sources, quite frequently from signs at the location or from official web sites; copyrights, if any, are retained by their original owners.

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[103] SIPRW2_150826_389.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?) $Competitive Allies: At times, the alliance between American and British military commanders became fractious, marked by bitter rivalries. When Allied forces invaded southern Sicily in the summer of 1943, US lieutenant general George S. Patton was determined to best British field marshal Bernard Montgomery. In what Patton considered "a horse race in which the prestige of the US Army is at stake," he raced up the island's west side. Patton reached Messina, Sicily's northernmost port, before Montgomery -- just after Axis troops had escaped. Subsequently, Americans began to assume more control over tactical planning, but were repeatedly overruled when they questioned the British strategy of continuing to fight for Italy.$	[104] SIPRW2_150826_392.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[105] SIPRW2_150826_395.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
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Specific picture descriptions: Photos above with "i" icons next to the bracketed sequence numbers (e.g. "[1] ") are described as follows:
1. SIPRW2_150826_009.JPG: Imperial Japan: General Hideki Tojo oversaw the culmination of Japan's effort to drive colonial powers from eastern Asia and to establish a self-sufficient empire. In an ominous prelude to World War II, Japanese forces swept into eastern China in 1937 and laid waste to Shanghai and Nanking. Japan's leaders proclaimed this the first step in creating a "new order" that would rid Asia and the Pacific of Western colonial and imperial influence. Japan had annexed Korea in 1910 and taken control of Manchuria in 1931. Tojo became war minister in 1940 and prime minister in 1941. He directed the occupation of resource-rich French Indochina (now Vietnam), then set his sights on British Malaya, the Dutch East Indies, the American Philippines, and Australia.
2. SIPRW2_150826_012.JPG: Japan's sphere of influence, 1942
3. SIPRW2_150826_016.JPG: By December 1941, Japan had conquered much of East Asia and was poised to expand across the Pacific Rim.
4. SIPRW2_150826_018.JPG: By December 1941, Germany had seized control of most of Europe and was at war with Great Britain and the Soviet Union.
5. SIPRW2_150826_022.JPG: Axis and Allied territory, 1942
6. SIPRW2_150826_024.JPG: Nazi Germany: Adolf Hitler's single-mindedly pursued his goals of military conquest and the elimination of Jews. Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party swept to power in 1933. Immediately he began a vengeful and compulsive quest to remake Germany -- and the world. He rebuilt Germany's war machine, mobilizing industry and expanding the military. He seized territory: the Rhineland in 1936, Austria and portions of Czechoslovakia in 1938, and Poland in 1939, sparking World War II. In 1940, he launched air attacks on Great Britain and took France. He invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 and even set his sights on the United States. Simultaneously, Hitler began the systematic mass murder of Jews and other groups he considered "undesirable."
7. SIPRW2_150826_027.JPG: By December 1941, Italy had made imperial gains across the Mediterranean and joined Germany's war effort.
8. SIPRW2_150826_032.JPG: Fascist Italy: Benito Mussolini dreamed of building a modern Roman Empire by conquering the Mediterranean. Mussolini became dictator of Italy in 1925 with dreams of restoring the glory days of the Roman Empire. Beyond a blustering propaganda campaign, his military gains were limited to seizing easy targets: Ethiopia in 1936 and Albania in 1939. In 1940, as the German blitzkrieg spread across Europe, Mussolini allied himself with Hitler and opened a self-described "parallel war" in the Mediterranean. He dispatched ill-prepared Italian forces to North Africa and Greece, hoping that an eventual German victory would enable Italy to claim these territories.
9. SIPRW2_150826_038.JPG: Swastika flag
10. SIPRW2_150826_042.JPG: World War II 1941-1945 Americans joined the Allies to defeat Axis militarism and nationalist expansion. Section Highlights: Pearl Harbor, 1941 Mobilizing the Home Front Victory in North Africa, 1942-1943 Fighting for Europe, 1943-1945 War in the Pacific, 1941-1945 USO Theater Coming Home
11. SIPRW2_150826_058.JPG: In Europe: As the Nazi blitzkrieg, or lightning war, raced across Europe, German forces committed unnumbered atrocities against the men, women, and children in their path, especially Slavs. Most notoriously, the Germans undertook the systematic brutalization and murder of Jews, Gypsies, homosexuals, and others they considered inferior.
12. SIPRW2_150826_062.JPG: Axis Aggression: The Axis powers -- Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and imperial Japan -- ruthlessly pursued territory and power. Underlying Axis ambitions were strong beliefs in racial and ethnic superiority that were used to justify wanton slaughter. When they joined forces to defeat Germany, Italy, and Japan, the Allies resolved that the war could never end in a truce. It would require unconditional surrender and replacement of the enemy governments.
13. SIPRW2_150826_073.JPG: In Asia: As the Japanese expanded their empire, they subjected enemies and prisoners to extremely brutal treatment, enslavement, or execution -- most notoriously in the capture of Nanking in 1937.
14. SIPRW2_150826_078.JPG: Japanese flag
15. SIPRW2_150826_087.JPG: Japan's surprise attack on Pearl Harbor plunged the United States into a world war already under way in Europe and Asia.
16. SIPRW2_150826_092.JPG: Pearl Harbor: At 7:55am on December 7, 1941, air forces of the Japanese navy attacked US naval bases and airfields on Oahu Island, Hawaii. The quiet of a Sunday morning was shattered by the drone of low-flying planes, then thundering explosions and strafing gunfire, and then wailing sirens and antiaircraft fire. Nearly 200 Japanese bombers, torpedo planes, dive-bombers, and fighters swarmed over Oahu, battering ships and aircraft. An hour later a second wave attacked. By 10am, 18 ships were listing or sunk in the oil-slicked, burning waters of Pearl Harbor; more than 300 aircraft were destroyed or damaged; nearly 2,500 Americans were dead and more than 1,000 were wounded. The next day, President Franklin Roosevelt asked Congress to declare war on Japan.
17. SIPRW2_150826_094.JPG: "A Date Which Will Live in _ _ _" President Roosevelt made last-minute revisions to his address to Congress requesting a declaration of war with Japan. Among the changes he penciled onto the typewritten draft was new wording for what was to become the most memorable line of the speech. Compare the typewritten original with the handwritten revision.
18. SIPRW2_150826_098.JPG: "December 7, 1941 -- a date which will live in infamy--"
19. SIPRW2_150826_103.JPG: Beyond Pearl Harbor: The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor was just the beginning of a massive offensive that moved across the Pacific. While fires still roiled out of control at Pearl Harbor, Japanese forces attacked more targets in the Pacific. Over the next three weeks, they swept across eastern Asia nearly to Australia, and invaded the Philippines. Crippled American naval and air forces were unable to intervene. But the attack on Pearl Harbor had missed the US fleet's heavy cruisers and aircraft carriers, which were at sea during the raid, as well as tank farms filled with vital fuel oil. And all but two ships at Pearl were eventually retrieved and restored to service.
20. SIPRW2_150826_109.JPG: Purple Heart citation and medal awarded to Edward C. Morse, killed in action aboard the USS Arizona on December 7, 1941
21. SIPRW2_150826_115.JPG: Piece of Japanese plane shot down at Pearl Harbor Shrapnel from the attack on the USS Pennsylvania Pieces of Japanese bombs Piece of Japanese plane Sweetheart pins
22. SIPRW2_150826_119.JPG: Radiogram announcing the air raid
23. SIPRW2_150826_145.JPG: Wat Production: The sheer mass -- and seemingly endless supply -- of American-produced war materiel would overwhelm the Axis enemies. * 340,000 aircraft * 88,000 tanks * 8,800 warships * 5,600 merchant ships * 224,000 pieces of artillery * 2,382,000 trucks * 79,000 landing craft * 2,600,000 machine guns * 15,000,000 guns * 20,800,000 helmets * 41,000,000,000 rounds of ammunition
24. SIPRW2_150826_158.JPG: "United We Will Win" The Roosevelt administration and a host of new government agencies directed a massive effort to transform the nation into an efficient war machine. "We are all in it -- all the way," President Franklin Roosevelt told Americans during a radio broadcast two days after the United States entered the war. Every single man, woman and child is a partner in the most tremendous undertaking of our American history." Sixteen million donned uniforms. The millions more who stayed home were a vast civilian army, mobilized by the government to finance the war effort, conserve natural resources, and produce a continuous flow of war materiel. They received their marching orders in popular magazines, advertisements, toys, movies, and thousands of government-produced posters.
25. SIPRW2_150826_163.JPG: American Internment Camps: Foreign nationals and US citizens of "enemy" ancestry were removed from their homes and held in detention camps. Fearful of threats to homeland security, President Franklin Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942. His order authorized the removal of "any or all persons" from areas of the country deemed vulnerable to attack or sabotage. Nearly 120,000 Japanese and Japanese Americans -- two-thirds of them US citizens -- were forced from their businesses and homes. They were held in internment camps in isolated locations for up to four years.
26. SIPRW2_150826_165.JPG: Removal of Japanese Americans: Japanese and Japanese Americans in California sometimes had only several days' notice before they were relocated. Thousands were forced to sell their homes and businesses quickly -- at an enormous loss.
27. SIPRW2_150826_168.JPG: US Citizens Impounded: Japanese Americans were wrongfully imprisoned in hastily built, woefully inadequate camps. Surrounded by barbed-wire fences and under the constant gaze of armed guards, they endured the discomforts, regimens, and indignities of confinement -- and of having been stripped of the most basic rights of citizenship.
28. SIPRW2_150826_174.JPG: Wooden retail display that replaced a metal display recycled for scrap
29. SIPRW2_150826_177.JPG: Glass coffee jar used because metal was not available
30. SIPRW2_150826_188.JPG: Gas Rationing: Gas rationing helped conserve limited supplies of fuel, and more important, it saved wear on vehicle tires and helped conserve the nation's scarce rubber supplies. Drivers with A-ration stamps, for nonessential use, were eligible for three gallons a week. Truckers (T) and others, like farmers who needed gas to operate equipment and get to town, could purchase more or were exempt from rationing.
31. SIPRW2_150826_191.JPG: "So They'll Have Enough" As natural resources, even agricultural outputs, were diverted to support the troops, Americans faced shortages and rationing. In 1942, the US government began rationing gasoline and sugar. The next year, fresh meat, butter, cheese, and canned goods were rationed as well. Every month, households received a limited number of ration stamps with point values for fresh and canned foods. Stamps had to be redeemed with each food purchase. Shoppers could exchange meat drippings and bacon fat -- used for explosives -- for extra points. Even with rationing, foods were in short supply. Many families tended backyard "victory gardens," canned their own vegetables, or substituted ingredients in favorite recipes.
32. SIPRW2_150826_194.JPG: Dressing for War: Even civilians found themselves wearing government-regulated clothing. War production devoured cotton, silk, nylon, wool, leather, and rubber; little was left for civilian clothes or shoes. Regulation L-85, issued by the War Production Board in 1942, rationed natural fibers and forbade drastic style changes that might tempt buyers. It limited color choices and restricted the length of skirts and the fullness of pants and jackets; even cuffs were banned. Manufacturers substituted synthetics for some fabrics, but stopped making nylon stockings altogether in order to make parachutes. And they had to abandon rubber-based stretch fabrics and elastics in women's "foundation" garments.
33. SIPRW2_150826_219.JPG: The Arsenal of Democracy: American industry and American workers produced most of the war materiel the United States and some forty other nations used to fight the war. When the United States entered the war in 1941, American defense industries were already churning out planes and ships, trucks and tanks, guns and shells, and supplies and equipment. Tons of materiel were being shipped to Britain and other nations battling Axis advances. As America joined the fight and battlefronts multiplied around the globe, demands on war production skyrocketed. Civilian industries retooled, making tanks instead of cars, parachutes instead of stockings, even machine guns instead of Kleenex. And as men went off to war, six million women took their places on factory floors and assembly lines.
34. SIPRW2_150826_229.JPG: Revolutionizing Production: The application of welding on a large scale helped speed the mass production of ships and other war materiel. American shipbuilding Henry Kaiser headed a consortium of companies charged by the government to speed construction of desperately needed cargo and transport vessels. He introduced modular construction techniques in which ship components were welded together by electric current rather than hot-riveted; each ship had 600,000 feet of welded joints. Arc welding was faster than riveting, required one person instead of four to join each seam, and was easier for newly recruited war workers to learn. In one record-breaking sprint, workers completed the Liberty ship Robert E. Perry in four days and 15.5 hours.
35. SIPRW2_150826_233.JPG: My View: Augusta H. Clawson "There is nothing to prepare you [in the training] for the excruciating noise you get down in the ship. Any who were not heart and soul determined to stick it out would fade out right away. There are times when those chippers get going and two shipfitters on opposite sides of a metal wall swing tremendous metal sledgehammers simultaneously and you wonder if your ears can stand it." -- Shipyard worker Augusta Clawson, 1944
36. SIPRW2_150826_243.JPG: A Kid's War: American children did their part for the war effort. The war was unavoidable for kids. Many of their favorite characters from the funny pages and comic books went to war. Superman -- classified 4-F when his X-ray vision skewed a preinduction eye test -- encouraged them to use their pennies for victory bonds. Saturday afternoon movies and newsreels, even trading cards, tracked the war's progress. Toys and games enabled them to play make-believe combat, but with wooden guns and paper soldiers because metal was needed for war production. And government campaigns encouraged youngsters to assist in scrap drives and civil defense efforts.
37. SIPRW2_150826_246.JPG: Hollywood Goes to War: The entertainment industry produced dozens of films in support of the war effort, while Hollywood stars pitched in to help. Early in 1942, Hollywood released it first patriotism-building, morale-boosting movies. Produced in close collaboration with the US Office of War Information, the films pitted heroic Americans against villainous Nazis and fanatical Japanese, and depicted a home front united for victory. Screen stars like Clark Gable joined the armed forces. Many others served in special movie units as the hosts of training films. And Hollywood's top directors made motivational pictures for troops. Meanwhile, movie starts like Betty Grable posed for pinups and promoted war bonds and scrap drives.
38. SIPRW2_150826_260.JPG: Betty Grable's Manual of Arms (and Legs) in Esquire magazine, 1943
39. SIPRW2_150826_268.JPG: Clark Gable's Army Air Forces uniform coat and hat
40. SIPRW2_150826_276.JPG: Superman Junior Defense League of America cards
41. SIPRW2_150826_282.JPG: "You're in the Army Now" Responding to Uncle Sam's call, American men, most in their early twenties, hung up their civvies, put on a uniform, and went to war. The United States summoned millions of American men -- rich and poor, illiterate and educated, from farms and cities -- for "training and service" in US land, naval, and air forces. Six million joined, ten million were drafted. They found themselves at one of hundreds of mobilization camps and training centers across the country. They received a haircut, immunizations, a stack of uniforms, and fear, a bunk, a footlocker -- and a rude awakening. Most had just weeks to learn soldiering, the technicalities of weapon systems, or the complexities of support services. Then they faced the realities of war.
42. SIPRW2_150826_286.JPG: A Star in the Window: A service flag, in the words of a popular song from 1944, was "a blue star beaming in the window, for a loved one far away." Reviving a practice started during World War I, millions of U.S. families -- one in five -- displayed blue-star flags in the front windows of their homes. Each star proclaimed a son or daughter in military service. Many families displayed more than one flag or a flag with multiple stars. Each star symbolized a family's love, pride, worry, and hope. If a loved one was killed, a gold star covered or took the place of the blue one, making known an individual's sacrifice and a family's loss. Service flags reminded passersby of the enormity and human cost of the war effort.
43. SIPRW2_150826_294.JPG: "Oh! How I Hate to Get Up in the Morning" The company bugler marked the strict regimens of military life, calling out orders from reveille to taps. Many a recruit shared the sentiment expressed in a popular song of the day: "For the hardest blow of all, is to hear the bugler call: / 'You've got to get up, you've got to get up / You've got to get up this morning!' "
44. SIPRW2_150826_297.JPG: My Turn: Arthur Moody "I have washing, shaving, shoe greasing & polishing ... & several other things to do on top of taking a rifle apart & cleaning it each night. During the day it is marching... Mama if you are worrying about me you should quit because if millions of other boys have taken this treatment I guess I can." -- Arthur C. Moody, a private at the army's Camp Blanding near Starke, Florida, undated
45. SIPRW2_150826_300.JPG: Band of Brothers: Trainees learned to snore, shower, sweat, swear, smoke, and soldier together. Strangers in adjoining bunks had just weeks to become brothers in arms. Shared experiences of drilling, calisthenics, field training, classroom study, even bunk inspections, ideally built bonds of loyalty and trust. American forces numbered in the millions, but individuals operated in small groups organized around weapon, mechanical, or technical systems. Sometimes crews numbered a dozen or fewer. One million African Americans trained and served in segregated units, building strong bonds with their fellow soldiers but few across racial lines.
46. SIPRW2_150826_303.JPG: My Turn: William Michael Woods "I was proud of the fact that I had trained with an all black unit. If you've been trained with whites, they'd say you would measure up because of them... And they're not going to be able to say that. So I'm proud of the fact that I was trained with my folk. By my folk." -- Master Gunnery Sergeant William Michael Woods, who trained in 1942 at the segregated Marine Corps facility at Montford Point, North Carolina, oral history, 1999
47. SIPRW2_150826_306.JPG: Barracks Layout: The seventeen weeks, trainees were billeted in open-bay barracks that accommodated over sixty people on two levels.
48. SIPRW2_150826_318.JPG: On the Lookout for U-Boats: Crew members in Combat Information Centers tracked enemy vessels using visual sightings, radio direction finding, radar, and sonar. They also used intelligence from ultrasecret decoding of German intercepts. They communicated findings via radio telephones and teleprinters, or, when under a "radio silence," signal lights.
49. SIPRW2_150826_322.JPG: Signalman flashing a coded message
50. SIPRW2_150826_327.JPG: A Waterborne Supply Chain: Cargo ships and transports sailed in groups, protected by armed escorts and, at times, air patrols, but they remained vulnerable. Because lone ships as sea were highly vulnerable to attacks by prowling German U-boats, the Allies began to dispatch supply and troop ships in groups. At first, several ships were accompanied by a single destroyer. Soon dozens of vessels, sometimes more than 100, were sailing together with multiple warships. Airplanes acted as spotters, first flying in patrols above coastal waters and later launched from escort ships. Convoys transported everything needed to wage war: an "iron mountain" of weapons, ammunition, equipment, supplies, planes, and vehicles, and tens of thousands of troops.
51. SIPRW2_150826_332.JPG: Dungaree pants and shirt Flak helmet worn by telephone talkers at battle stations Life jacket "Dixie cup" cap worn by US Navy enlisted men Shipboard headset and chest-mounted transmitter Signal light
52. SIPRW2_150826_335.JPG: "Dixie cup" cap worn by US Navy enlisted men
53. SIPRW2_150826_337.JPG: German submarine bridge jacket German binoculars
54. SIPRW2_150826_342.JPG: The battle for control of the North Atlantic was fiercely fought, and Allied forces prevailed.
55. SIPRW2_150826_345.JPG: Life jacket
56. SIPRW2_150826_348.JPG: "Damn the Torpedoes!" At the height of the war, when U-boats were sinking more than twenty merchant ships a week, US mariners continued to deliver the goods. Even when traveling in protected convoys, the US merchant fleet of tankers, freighters, transports, tugs, barges, and newly built Liberty ships was vulnerable to attack by "wolf packs" of German U-boats. A torpedoed vessel hit amidships in the engine room could sink in less than a minute. Often it caught fire or exploded first; ships transporting fuel oil or munitions were especially vulnerable. One in twenty-six US mariners died during the war, a rate higher than that of any of the other services. Those who survived the sinkings returned to sea again and again.
57. SIPRW2_150826_350.JPG: Rescued at Sea: When ships sank, most crew members died. Navy and coast guard escort vessels rescued the few survivors; merchant ships were forbidden to stop. Pulled form the frigid waters of the North Atlantic, men were nearly always covered in thick oil from torpedo-ruptured engines and fuel tanks, and they were often wounded.
58. SIPRW2_150826_354.JPG: Battling German U-Boats: Ships crossing the North Atlantic with troops and supplies bound for war zones in Europe had to contend with German submarines. Tons of American-produced supplies and war materiel, as well as hundreds of thousands of US troops, had only one way to get to Europe: in ships crossing the North Atlantic. German submarines, or U-boats, posed a constant threat to Allied vessels, even ships in US coastal waters; by war's end, more than 2,500 would be sunk. But the deployment of ships in convoys, as well as ever-improving detection technologies and anti-sub weaponry, ensured that thousands of tankers, merchant ships, and troop transports made safe -- albeit nerve-wracking -- crossings. Allied counterattacks ultimately destroyed most of the U-boat fleet.
59. SIPRW2_150826_358.JPG: Tank Battles: Armored divisions battled in wide-ranging encounters, often in suffocating heat under a scalding dun. A coordinated air, sea, and land campaign battered Axis forces in North Africa, and armored divisions, especially tanks, played a crucial role. German tanks were more heavily armed and armored than those of the Allies. And German general Erwin Rommel, whom the Allies called the "Desert Fox, used them with skill and devastating effect during battle. Allied tank crews, or tankers, at first deployed their lighter tanks in surprise attacks against Axis armored divisions. But in the end, they outnumbered, outmaneuvered, and outlasted the Germans.
60. SIPRW2_150826_362.JPG: US tanker's helmet 60 mm rocket for bazooka, early and late versions US M1 bazooka, the standard antiarmor weapon British Mark I helmet, 1941 German antitank mine German Afrika Korps helmet
61. SIPRW2_150826_365.JPG: 60 mm rocket for bazooka, early and late versions
62. SIPRW2_150826_367.JPG: US tanker's helmet
63. SIPRW2_150826_370.JPG: German Afrika Korps helmet
64. SIPRW2_150826_372.JPG: The Mediterranean Theater
65. SIPRW2_150826_376.JPG: Allied Leaders: In 1941, President Franklin Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill were becoming personal allies. They agreed to destroy Germany first, then Japan. With Germany battling Russia, US war planners wanted to open a second front in German-occupied France. But Roosevelt deferred to Churchill: the Allies would first attack in the Mediterranean, the "soft-underbelly" of Nazi-occupied Europe. Roosevelt and Church at the 1941 Atlantic Conference off Newfoundland.
66. SIPRW2_150826_378.JPG: North African Campaign: Untested US troops joined British forces already in North Africa. Together they forced the Afrika Korps to surrender. In 1942, US forces joined the British, who had been battling Italian and German advances in North Africa for two years. Supported by hundreds of warships and support vessels, plus bombers and fighters, Allied troops put ashore along Africa's northern coast. Then they pushed east to join the fight against Axis strongholds in Tunisia. Allied air, naval, and ground forces, initially outmatched and often stopped, gradually isolated the Axis army. Months of brutal fighting ended in the war's first Allied victory, and taught green US troops and commanders hard truths about real combat.
67. SIPRW2_150826_381.JPG: US Army Rangers on patrol
68. SIPRW2_150826_384.JPG: African American field artillery troops in Italy
69. SIPRW2_150826_386.JPG: Japanese American troops of the 100th Battalion, 442nd Infantry
70. SIPRW2_150826_389.JPG: Competitive Allies: At times, the alliance between American and British military commanders became fractious, marked by bitter rivalries. When Allied forces invaded southern Sicily in the summer of 1943, US lieutenant general George S. Patton was determined to best British field marshal Bernard Montgomery. In what Patton considered "a horse race in which the prestige of the US Army is at stake," he raced up the island's west side. Patton reached Messina, Sicily's northernmost port, before Montgomery -- just after Axis troops had escaped. Subsequently, Americans began to assume more control over tactical planning, but were repeatedly overruled when they questioned the British strategy of continuing to fight for Italy.
71. SIPRW2_150826_392.JPG: Italian Cul-de-Sac: Roosevelt and Churchill agreed that Italy promised the best approach to Nazi Europe, but Allied advances bogged down. In July of 1943, half-a-million Allied soldiers, sailors, and airmen were deployed in a massive amphibious assault against German and Italian forces on Sicily, a rocky island just south of Italy's "boot." British and American commanders -- often at odds and fiercely competitive -- struggled to coordinate operations. They quickly won the island, but most of the enemy escaped. Lightly resisted landings in Italy and September belied the bloody struggle that lay ahead. It took nine months for Allied forces to claw their way to Rome, and they were reached Germany. By the end of the war, Allied casualties in Italy topped 300,000.
72. SIPRW2_150826_395.JPG: Combat boots
73. SIPRW2_150826_397.JPG: .45-caliber US M3 submachine gun known to GIs as the "grease gun" US M1910 canteen
74. SIPRW2_150826_399.JPG: Combat boots .45-caliber US M3 submachine gun known to GIs as the "grease gun" US M1910 canteen
75. SIPRW2_150826_406.JPG: My View: 100th Battalion Infantryman "They grow to be more than mere buddies. They become blood relations to you and they die before your eyes -- not a pleasant, natural death, but an unimaginable kind of mutilation mixed with groans and prayers ending with a gurgling last breath." -- Infantryman in Italy, 1943
76. SIPRW2_150826_408.JPG: My Turn: Ernie Pyle "I don't think we could continue the war without the jeep. It does everything. It goes everywhere. It's as faithful as a dog, strong as a mule, and as agile as a goat. It constantly carried twice that it was designed for, and keeps on going. It doesn't even ride so badly after you get used to it." -- Ernie Pyle, war correspondent, around 1944
77. SIPRW2_150826_411.JPG: The Willys Jeep: From 1941 to 1945, the Willys-Overland Motors assembly line in Toledo, Ohio, turned out nearly 360,000 "jeeps." The Ford Motor Company manufactured nearly 150,000 of a similar model. The quarter-ton, four-wheel-drive vehicle proved a versatile and reliable workhorse. It was easy to fix and maintain -- its headlights could even be pointed toward the engine for nighttime repairs.
78. SIPRW2_150826_421.JPG: My Turn: Frank Mabante "As we approached our target at Frankfurt... one of our engines started faltering. Then as we dropped our bomb load we lost another one... The order to 'bail out' came via the intercom.... I saw our B-17 for the last time... as it made a banked turn to the right and disappeared in some low clouds." -- Sergeant Frank Mabante, a gunner with the Eight Air Force, was a prisoner of war for fourteen months after being shot down; memoirs, 2002
79. SIPRW2_150826_425.JPG: Combined Bomber Offensive: In the summer of 1943, a US Army Air Corps expanded daylight bombing runs against industrial targets in Germany and occupied Europe. Bombers flew hundreds of miles -- far beyond the range of available fighter escorts -- to attack oil fields, refineries, and factories. Hundreds of planes and thousands of airmen were lost. In 1944, longer-range escorts made bombing more effective and less costly.
80. SIPRW2_150826_429.JPG: B-17s
81. SIPRW2_150826_432.JPG: Storming Hitler's "Fortress Europe": On D day, more than 150,000 Allied soldiers hit the heavily defended beaches of northwest France and battled their way inland. On the choppy waters of the English Channel, nearly 7,000 Allied navy and merchant vessels pushed toward the beaches of Normandy. Overhead, 12,000 bombers and fighter planes poured inland. Soldiers loaded with gear were crowded into open landing craft -- tired, cold, stuff, soaked in sea spray; many were seasick. Wave after wave of troops waded ashore, some in neck-deep water. They were met by withering fire from concrete pillboxes atop high bluffs. Left and right, soldiers exploded in blood. Survivors clawed their way forward, securing an Allied foothold in France.
82. SIPRW2_150826_439.JPG: My Turn: Leslie Palmer Cruise Jr. "Rushing past a twenty-foot-high hedgerow, I landed with a thud... As I peered skyward the planes kept droning above in the flak-ridden sky. Occasionally one large flash appeared and I would see a plane silhouetting earthward. 'Oh my God,' I thought, 'There goes a whole plane load of guys.' " -- Private First Class Leslie Cruise, Eighty-second Airborne Division, oral history, 2001
83. SIPRW2_150826_441.JPG: Battle Losses: The exact number of American, British, and Canadian soldiers, sailors, airmen, and mariners who were killed on June 6, 1944, is unknown, but anywhere from 2,500 to 5,000 died that day. Many were buried in farmers' fields just beyond the beaches, their bodies wrapped in mattress covers, their graves marked with a helmet atop an upended rifle.
84. SIPRW2_150826_448.JPG: D day: After intense debate, the Allies agreed to launch an assault across the English Channel into occupied France. On June 6, 1944, a massive Allied force landed on the beaches at Normandy. American war planners had long wanted to make a direct assault on northwest Europe, but the British had refused. Roosevelt deferred to Churchill, and neither heeded appeals from Joseph Stalin -- who was battling Nazi expansion eastward into Russia -- to open a second front in the west. But in spring 1943, the British relented. That fall, Stalin enthusiastically endorsed the plan, and pledged to join the war against Japan. By spring of 1944, a year of Allied bombing had weakened Germany's war machine. The stage was set for D day.
85. SIPRW2_150826_453.JPG: .30-caliber US M1 Garand rifle had a spring-steel clip with eight rounds of ammunition. It was the first semiautomatic rifle used as a standard shoulder arm by the rank and file of any army.
86. SIPRW2_150826_457.JPG: .45-caliber M1911A1 semiautomatic pistol Longer-range EE-8-A field telephone
87. SIPRW2_150826_461.JPG: Equipping the GI: As GIs spread across France, they were never without their semiautomatic M1 rifles or their helmets, nicknamed "steel pots." In addition to eighty pounds of gear, they carried rounds of ammunition and hand grenades for close-quarters fighting. Troops were also supplied with mortars and shells, shoulder-fired bazookas, and machine guns. Infantry units were often widely dispersed, receiving their orders and coordinating artillery and air strikes via portable radio sets.
88. SIPRW2_150826_468.JPG: Seizing Ground: Allied ground troops doggedly pushed their way across France, fighting among hedgerows one day and along city streets the next. Infantry fired and moved, advancing in concert with tank divisions, artillery, and air support against strong German resistance. They stormed enemy positions, traded fire across fields, and tramped along winding roads that were often littered with shattered wagons, abandoned bicycles, burned-out trucks and tanks, and bloated bodies. In towns, many with bombed-out buildings and rubble-filled streets, they advanced door-to-door in close-quarters fighting, always wary of sniper fire. During the three-month advance, 37,000 Allied infantry were killed.
89. SIPRW2_150826_471.JPG: Fighting for France: After D day, the Allies poured two million troops and tons of supplies, equipment, and munitions into France. Allied troops and armored divisions under the overall command of US general Dwight D. Eisenhower spread inland from the beach and air-drop zones in Normandy. In bitter fighting, they battled their way through fields and along country lanes, into villages and from door to door, while Allied bombing and strafing battered German defenses. In August, amphibious landings from the Mediterranean poured troops and supplies diverted from Italy into southern France. Meanwhile, Allied forces crossing the Seine River and entered Paris. By mid-September, the Allies were in control of Belgium and stood ready to strike Germany.
90. SIPRW2_150826_474.JPG: My Turn: Dwight D. Eisenhower "The enemy is being defeated in the East, in the South, and in the North; he has experienced internal dissension and... is nearing collapse... We, in the West, must seize this opportunity by acting swiftly and relentlessly and by accepting risks in our determination to close with the German wherever met." -- General Dwight D. Eisenhower, August 29, 1944
91. SIPRW2_150826_480.JPG: The European Theater
92. SIPRW2_150826_484.JPG: This Way to Berlin: US troops paraded through Paris and kept on marching. They raced to join other Allied forces sweeping toward Belgium and Luxembourg, bound for Germany. The Allied armies had the Germans on the run; the wake of their hasty retreat was littered with abandoned equipment that became trophies of war.
93. SIPRW2_150826_486.JPG: Nazi flag 9 mm German P38 pistol German U-boat officer's dagger with scabbard and portepee. This dagger was taken at the surrender of German forces at the U-boat base at Lorient, France, on May 10, 1945. It was given to US Army S.Sgt. Arthur Hoffmann, who served as a translator at the surrender ceremony.
94. SIPRW2_150826_495.JPG: Paris Libere: Sidewalks and streets filled with cheering crowds as Parisians celebrated the end of the four-year Nazi occupation. On August 29, 1944, US infantrymen marched down the streets of Paris. They were greeted with cheers and kisses as residents celebrated the city's liberation from German occupation. France had fallen to the Nazis in 1940, but an internal resistance movement had struggled to sabotage occupying forces and overthrow the German-backed Vichy government. By late summer of 1944, as Allied troops neared the city, freedom fighters took to the streets and Allied commanders dispatched a French armored division to the city. In days, the commander of German forces in Paris surrendered.
95. SIPRW2_150826_498.JPG: Battle of the Bulge: On December 16, 1944, Allied troops crossing Germany's western border were surprised by a last-ditch German counterattack. Allied troops were massed along miles of the German border when the Nazis mounted a surprise offensive in the forests of Belgium. The Allied line budges, but did not break. A month of bitter fighting in winter cold and deep snow cost the Allies nearly 80,000 casualties; some 20,000 Americans were killed. The battle further depleted Germany's disappearing resources and fighting forces; its army by now was deploying boys, many younger than sixteen. But the Germans' desperate resolve hardened, setting the stage for a bloody battle for Berlin and their homeland.
96. SIPRW2_150826_502.JPG: Mittens with trigger fingers
97. SIPRW2_150826_505.JPG: Allied POWs: During the war nearly 94,000 Americans, about 200,000 Britons, and 5,700,000 Soviets were taken prisoners of war by Nazi Germany. While English and American captives were sometimes mistreated, Slavs -- considered racially inferior by the Germans -- were routinely brutalized, starved, left to die or disease, or executed.
98. SIPRW2_150826_507.JPG: Means of Escape: The US Military Intelligence Service (X) was created in 1942 to help Allied prisoners escape. It concealed radio components, maps, compasses, and money in toiletries and recreational items that it sent to prisoners in "care packages."
99. SIPRW2_150826_509.JPG: British naval button concealing a compass Shaving brush, pipe, and baseball each with a hidden compartment. POW ID tags
100. SIPRW2_150826_515.JPG: The Russian Front: The Soviets spent much of the war battling a German invasion. In 1944, they turned the tables and, in 1945, surged into Germany. Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 and rapidly advanced inland, establishing a front that stretched from Leningrad to Moscow to Stalingrad. The Germans quickly found themselves mired in a brutal fight they could not win, but would not give up. Losses on both sides were astronomical. By 1944, the Russians were on the offensive. They drove German forces out of Soviet territory, Eastern Europe, and the Balkans, then moved into Germany where they unleashed a reign of revenge-fueled terror. By April of 1945, more than one million Soviet troops stood poised to capture Berlin.
101. SIPRW2_150826_518.JPG: On to Berlin: Soviet troops crossed Germany's eastern borders; then American and British forces poured in from the west, across the Rhine River. In early spring of 1945, Allied infantry and armored divisions, in concert with a massive, relentless bombing campaign, pushed toward Berlin from both west and east. Millions of Allied troops advanced across Germany, breaking through German defenses and taking thousands of prisoners of war. Along the way, they freed Allied prisoners of war from prison camps and discovered unimaginable horrors at Nazi death camps. In the first week of May, following Adolf Hitler's suicide on April 30, the Nazi regime collapsed. Berlin fell to the Soviets, and Axis armies in Italy gave up. Germany finally surrendered, effective May 8. The war for Europe was over.
102. SIPRW2_150826_524.JPG: Liberating Nazi Death Camps: Allied forces discovered concentration and death camps where Nazis had killed six million Jews and five million more "undesirables": Gypsies, disabled persons, homosexuals. Inside the camps, troops found piles of gaunt dead bodies, and some emaciated survivors.
103. SIPRW2_150826_530.JPG: Flying the Hump: In 1942, Japan cut off land routes to Chinese forces fighting with the Allies. In response, the Allies began flying in supplies from India, over the Himalayas, in the first sustained, round-the-clock aerial resupply in history. By 1945, more than 600 aircraft were involved, and the operation brought in 650,000 tons of supplies.
104. SIPRW2_150826_533.JPG: My Turn: Lester I. Tenney "We saw an American soldier, kneeling in front of a Japanese officer. The officer had his Samurai sword... Up went the blade, then with great artistry, and a loud 'Banzai,' the officer brought the blade down. The sound of a dull thud, and the American was decapitated." -- Lester I. Tenney, one of 70,000 prisoners forced to go on the horrific "Bataan death march," where more than 7,000 died or were killed, memoirs, 1995
105. SIPRW2_150826_540.JPG: Bataan death march, April 1942
106. SIPRW2_150826_542.JPG: Allies on the Defensive: In early 1942, the Japanese expanded their empire with dramatic victories throughout Asia and the Pacific. Following their success at Pearl Harbor, the Japanese conquered Pacific territories from the Gilberts in the south, Burma in the west, and the Aleutian Islands in the north. They captured Hong Kong, the Dutch East Indies, and the Philippines, and threatened even Australia and New Zealand. Because the Allied had agreed to give highest priority to defeating Germany and Italy, resources for combating Japan were limited. Still, the Allies began fighting back. The US Navy halted the advance of the Imperial Japanese Navy in the Coral Sea in May and decisively won the Battle of Midway in June.
107. SIPRW2_150826_546.JPG: Jimmy Doolittle's Raid: On April 18, 1942, Lieutenant Colonel Jimmy Doolittle led sixteen B-25 bombers, launched from an aircraft carrier more than 700 miles out to sea, on a daring raid on Tokyo. Most of his planes hit targets in the capital. Although the raid caused modest damage, it embarrassed the Japanese government and greatly boosted US morale.
108. SIPRW2_150826_550.JPG: US B4 life preserve nicknamed a "Mae West" after the buxom actress
109. SIPRW2_150826_552.JPG: Flying jacket worn by George Gay, the sole survivor of his squadron at the Battle of Midway, June 4-7, 1942
110. SIPRW2_150826_554.JPG: Miracle at Midway: In June 1942, the US Navy dealt the Japanese a devastating blow, sinking four aircraft carriers and killing many aviators. Believing the US fleet still vulnerable, the Japanese attacked the Midway Islands as a step toward taking Hawaii. But US forces, having broken Japanese codes, were waiting for them. When the two fleets clashed, the Japanese seemed to be winning, easily destroying two waves of US attack planes. Then a few US dive bombers caught the Japanese carriers with planes refueling and sank three of them. Another was damaged and later sank. Although the United States also lost a carrier, it was easily replaced by US industry. The Japanese never fully recovered.
111. SIPRW2_150826_558.JPG: The Pacific Theater
112. SIPRW2_150826_564.JPG: Planning Strategy: Success in the Pacific war required cooperation between army and navy forces. Although General Douglas MacArthur and Admiral Chester Nimitz did not always agree, they effectively collaborated on a two-prompted attack that led to victory.
113. SIPRW2_150826_568.JPG: US M2A1 flamethrower
114. SIPRW2_150826_570.JPG: Amphibious Assaults: To secure the Pacific islands, marine and army forces made amphibious landings and assaulted Japanese strongholds. Island assaults began with massive bombardments from ships and aircraft against shore positions. Forces landed in specially designed landing craft, many of which could move up on the beach itself before unloading. Once on the beach, the men fought their way inland, attacking enemy troops hidden in caves, bunkers, and fortified heights, often suffering heavy losses. Their weapons included not only mortars, rifles, and machine guns, but also fearsome flamethrowers. The Japanese were tenacious fighters who resisted fiercely, even when they had little chance of winning.
115. SIPRW2_150826_573.JPG: Dead US soldiers on the beach at Buna, Papua New Guinea, 1943
116. SIPRW2_150826_585.JPG: Across the Pacific: In 1943, the army and navy jointly began a two-pronged attack through the central Pacific and across New Guinea to the Philippines. In the central Pacific, vast ocean areas separated critical island bases. Fast carrier task forces and army bombers attacked the targeted islands while slower amphibious forces made bloody assaults on island strongholds. Once captured, the islands became airfields and supply hubs for the next attack. In the south, Allied forces continued west around Rabaul, bound for the Philippines, supported by the Army Air Forces and, at times, the central Pacific Fleet. Gradually, the Americans pushed the Japanese back and opened the way to assault their homeland.
117. SIPRW2_150826_588.JPG: 60 mm US M2 mortar and mortar shell
118. SIPRW2_150826_593.JPG: Amphibious Assaults: To secure the Pacific islands, marine and army forces made amphibious landings and assaulted Japanese strongholds. Island assaults began with massive bombardments from ships and aircraft against shore positions. Forces landed in specially designed landing craft, many of which could move up on the beach itself before unloading. Once on the beach, the men fought their way inland, attacking enemy troops hidden in caves, bunkers, and fortified heights, often suffering heavy losses. Their weapons included not only mortars, rifles, and machine guns, but also fearsome flamethrowers. The Japanese were tenacious fighters who resisted fiercely, even when they had little chance of winning.
119. SIPRW2_150826_598.JPG: Navajo Code Talkers: Indian "code talkers" used their complex and largely unknown language in an innovative program to protect communications. Some 400 Navajos were trained to convey information about troops movements and tactics. They took part in every Pacific assault from 1942 to 1945, and their code was never broken.
120. SIPRW2_150826_599.JPG: My View: Raymond Knight "We went over the wall into heavier fire as the Japs had pillboxes staggered to protect one another... Sixteen-inch shells off of our battleships would ricochet off of them, but they were finally knocked out by flamethrowers and charged dropped down the vents." -- Private First Class Raymond Knight, memories, 1985
121. SIPRW2_150826_602.JPG: Keeping Score: From 1943 on, American submarines were highly effective, eventually destroying 55 percent of Japanese ships and strangling the country's major supply lines. Sailors on board the USS Griffin, a submarine tender, kept score of the ships sunk by the submarines in their squadron.
122. SIPRW2_150826_606.JPG: Tightening the Noose: Even as the United States was completing its capture of the islands east of Japan, it began bombing the Japanese homeland. In October 1944, General Douglas MacArthur returned to the Philippines (he was forced to evacuate in March 1942) and began pushing back the Japanese. The Japanese islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa fell in March and June of 1945. Meanwhile, the Army Air Forces started a strategic bombing campaign against Japanese cities that met little resistance and had devastating effects. The government of Prime Minister Hideki Tojo fell in July 1944, after the loss of Saipan to the Allies. Still, Japanese militarists retained power and resisted surrender, bringing continual destruction on their own people. An invasion of Japan appeared inevitable.
123. SIPRW2_150826_613.JPG: The Strategic Air Campaign: The United States tailored its bombing campaign in Japan to cause maximum devastation and break the Japanese will to fight. In March 1945, U.S. bombers changed tactics. Instead of flying high-altitude daylight runs against industrial targets, they began low-flying nighttime attacks on cities, with incendiary bombs. Firestorms devastated property and killed civilians as well as soldiers and factory workers. On the night of March 9-10, for example, U.S. bombers destroyed sixteen square miles of Tokyo and killed close to 100,000 men, women, and children. By mid-June, most of Japan's major cities were destroyed. Aerial mines were dropped in harbors while the U.S. Navy launched carrier air attacks against coastal targets. Still the Japanese fought on.
124. SIPRW2_150826_614.JPG: B-29s bombing Kobe, Japan, June 5, 1945
125. SIPRW2_150826_617.JPG: My View: Guillermo Rumingan "We were herded together by the Japanese. They were trying to ferret out guerriilas. They pulled out the man in front of me and the man on the left side and hung them, with their feet off the ground... Then we were all stripped naked and made to jump in place for about four hours. But nobody squealed." -- Guillermo Rumingan, Philippine guerrilla, oral history, 2004
126. SIPRW2_150826_619.JPG: Kamikaze Attacks: Late in the war, desperate to inflict greater losses on US forces, Japan began sending pilots on suicide missions, using their airplanes as guided weapons against US ships. Japanese pilots flew some 2,800 kamikaze missions, sinking 34 Allied ships and damaging 288 others.
127. SIPRW2_150826_622.JPG: My Turn: Harry S. Truman "We have used [the bomb] against those who attacked us without warning at Pearl Harbor, against those who have starved and beaten and executed American prisoners of war... We have used it in order to shorten the agony of war, in order to save the lives of thousands and thousands of young Americans." -- President Truman addressing the nation on August 9, 1945
128. SIPRW2_150826_625.JPG: My Turn: Paul Fussell "When the bombs dropped and news began to circulate that [the invasion of Japan] would not, after all, take place, that we would not be obliged to run up the beaches near Tokyo assault-firing while being mortared and shelled... we cried with relief and joy... We were going to grow up to adulthood after all." -- Second Lieutenant Paul Fussell, age twenty-one when en route to Japan in August 1945, memoirs, 1988
129. SIPRW2_150826_628.JPG: My View: Kazuo Hanaoka "I saw nothing that wasn't burned to a crisp. I saw fire reservoirs filled to the brim with dead people who looked as though they had been boiled alive. In one reservoir I saw a man, horribly burned, crouching beside another man who was dead. He was drinking blood-stained water out of the reservoir." -- Dr. Kazuo Hanaoka, head of internal medicine at Hiroshima Communications Hospital, 1945
130. SIPRW2_150826_631.JPG: My View: Emperor Hirohito "... the enemy has begun to employ a new and most cruel bomb, the power of which to do damage is, indeed, incalculable, taking the toll of many innocent lives... This is the reason why We have ordered the acceptance of the provisions of the Joint Declaration of the Powers." -- Japanese emperor Hirohito, in a radio address on August 15, 1945, announcing that the Japanese were accepting the Allies' surrender terms
131. SIPRW2_150826_634.JPG: The Final Blow: President Harry Truman personally ordered atomic bombs dropped on Japan. Within days, Japan surrendered. In July 1945, President Truman made his controversial decision to use atomic weapons that had been developed secretly during the war by Manhattan Project scientists. Allied submarines had crippled the Japanese merchant fleet. Firebombs had destroyed dozens of Japanese cities; few targets remained. Yet Japan had not surrendered. American incurred enormous losses taking Iwo Jima and Okinawa. Japanese suicide attacks on US ships had killed more sailors in two months than in the previous two years. More that one million troops were moving to invade Japan when the first bomb destroyed Hiroshima on August 6, 1945. On August 9, a second atomic bomb leveled Nagasaki, and Japan surrendered.
132. SIPRW2_150826_640.JPG: On August 6, 1945, a US B-29 dropped an atomic bomb that destroyed Hiroshima, Japan. Warfare and the world were forever changed.
133. SIPRW2_150826_642.JPG: Victory! Six years of world war came to an end in 1945 with the crushing defeat and unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany and imperial Japan. The Allies celebrated the collapse of Germany and victory in Europe of V-E day, May 8, 1945. Across Britain, Europe, and the United States, jubilant crowds took to the streets, their elation -- and relief -- tempered by the knowledge that war still raged in the Pacific. But the celebrating was unrestrained on August 15, 1945, when Japan admitted defeat. "This is the day we have been waiting for since Pearl Harbor," said President Harry Truman. "This is the day when Fascism finally dies." Surrender documents were signed on September 2 in a ceremony abroad the USS Missouri in Tokyo Bay.
134. SIPRW2_150826_647.JPG: My View: Thomas Quinn "I was launched to participate in a massive flyover of Tokyo Bay and USS Missouri during the signing ceremony of the Japanese surrender... Thank heaven there were no mid-air collisions in that gaggle of aircraft. It would have ruined my whole day to have been killed when I'm getting ready to go home." -- Lieutenant (jg) Thomas Quinn, memoirs, 2004
135. SIPRW2_150826_649.JPG: A Terrible Price: Nearly sixty million people -- combatants and noncombatants -- died worldwide during World War II. The first battles in what would become World War II took place when Japan invaded eastern China in 1937 and Germany invaded Poland in 1939. It would be eight dreadful years before the fighting stopped. Victory in Europe and in the Pacific brought euphoric celebrations and tremendous relief worldwide. But the toll the war had taken in human suffering and lives lost was staggering -- and for many regions of the globe, destabilizing.
136. SIPRW2_150826_656.JPG: Military and Civilian Casualties (Killed, Wounded, and Missing) of Representative Nations, 1939-1945 USSR -- 17,700,000 China -- 11,200,000 Poland -- 5,567,500 United Kingdom -- 729,700 United States -- 1,076,200 France -- 927,000 Germany -- 10,206,600 Japan -- 2,502,400 Italy -- 286,900
137. SIPRW2_150826_660.JPG: Peace: The United Nations Organization, chartered by fifty nations in June of 1945, promised international peace and security. Peace was won, but an uncertain future lay ahead. Although the American economy was booming and the nation's spirits were high, eight years of war had left cities worldwide in ruin, economies in shambles, and civilian populations displaced and ripe for unrest. The United States championed the establishment of the United Nations, daring to hope that it would keep world peace and safeguard US economic and political interests worldwide. Even as tensions with the Soviet Union surfaced, American forces were rapidly demobilized and millions of GIs returned home.
138. SIPRW2_150826_663.JPG: My Turn: Eleanor Roosevelt "For it isn't enough to talk of peace. One must believe it. And it isn't enough to believe in it. One must work at it." -- Former first lady Eleanor Roosevelt broadcasting on Voice of America radio, 1951
139. SIPRW2_150826_672.JPG: Mechanics: The most vital weapon employed during the war was often a wrench wielded by the soldiers who served as mechanics. An "ambidextrous corps of worker-fighters," these men and women did whatever was necessary to maintain and repair vehicles, ships, and weapons systems. "Without them," noted National Geographic in 1942, "not a wheel could turn... not a tank could run or a plane fly."
140. SIPRW2_150826_675.JPG: Nurses: About 65,000 nurses served in the army and navy, and most were women. Hundreds worked just behind the front lines, contending with the perils of combat as well as its bloody results. Thousands more worked farther along the "chain of evacuation" on hospital trains and ships, aboard medical transport planes, and in station hospitals abroad and stateside. One nurse recalled "hours of giving injections, anesthetizing, ripping off clothes, stitching gaping wounds, of amputations, sterilizing instruments, settling the treating patients into their beds, covering the wounded we could not save."
141. SIPRW2_150826_678.JPG: My Turn: Frank Dauster "I didn't want to be file clerk... so I was transferred to another unit, where they made [me] a weapons mechanic. I don't known which was stupider, me for turning down that file clerk job... or the army for trying to make a mechanic out of me." -- Frank Dauster, oral history, 1995
142. SIPRW2_150826_695.JPG: So Others Might Fight: For each infantryman in combat, ten other men -- and women -- in uniform provided support or supply services. Not every soldier in America's vast war machine carried a weapon or shipped overseas. Most of those in uniform, including all 400,000 women in the armed forces, were support troops. Many were responsible for training, deploying, and sustaining fighting forces. Many more procured, transported, and maintained the materiel and technologies needed to wage war. And thousands of civilians also provided support for US troops.
143. SIPRW2_150826_696.JPG: Chaplains: Nearly 9,000 Protestant, Catholic, and Jewish army chaplains served during the war; hundreds more served in the navy. Although unarmed, many accompanied troops into combat. They were required to give regular "character guidance" and venereal disease lectures. But in religious services and personal conferences, they offered spiritual and moral support for scared, battle-weary soldiers. Chaplains rescued the wounded and attended the dying. They conducted services for the dead, assisted with registration of graves, and wrote letters of condolence to bereaved families.
144. SIPRW2_150826_700.JPG: Red Cross uniform dress and hat
145. SIPRW2_150826_703.JPG: Red Cross Workers: Red Cross volunteers and staff offered a "friendly hand" to America's fighting men and women abroad. The camp service branch provided counseling, family information, even financial assistance. Service clubs -- often in makeshift quarters -- offered recreation and meals, barbershops, and laundries. "Clubmobiles" brought coffee and doughnuts to troops in the field. Red Cross social workers and nurses served in military hospitals. Blood banks collected and distributed 13.4 million pints of blood during the war. Other workers coordinated relief programs for Allied POWs and civilian war refugees.
146. SIPRW2_150826_705.JPG: My View: Alma Geist Cap "Oh, one of the big things we did each week was bingo, which the fellows loved. The cooks, who would bend over backwards and do anything for us, would bake pies and cakes for prizes. Neither Mary nor I smoked, but we had our cigarette ration, so that was a prize." -- Alma Geist Cap, Red Cross worker, oral history, 1997
147. SIPRW2_150826_710.JPG: Drivers and Flyers: US military services operated a transportation network within the United States, across the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and within war zones. Trains, ships, and aircraft -- many flown by Women Airforce Service Pilots (WASP) -- provided essential connections. Trucks and their often weary, bone-rattled drivers were the last links in the logistical chain. Nearly 6,000 truck, with mostly African American drivers, supported the Allied advance toward Paris in the summer and autumn of 1944. In an operation dubbed the Red Ball Express, they transported almost 500,000 tons of supplies in three months.
148. SIPRW2_150826_713.JPG: Fifinella, a winged gremlin created by Walt Disney, adopted as the WASP mascot
149. SIPRW2_150826_716.JPG: Instructors: Thousands of military personnel worked stateside as instructors. Many were the barking drill instructors central to basic training. Many more were chalk-toting lecturers who conducted classroom sessions or hands-on workshops. The US military developed training programs and ready-reference field and technical manuals for hundreds of topics, from the operation of weapon systems to weather forecasting.
150. SIPRW2_150826_718.JPG: My View: William Lubar "We had the pilots, co-pilots, and navigators as students. You would put your student in the Link trainer, close the hatch. This was strictly blind flying. We would give him an assignment, possibly [a] landing. He would have to look at his instruments, see what was happening... and fly into whatever airport." -- William Lubar, air training instructor, oral history, 2004
151. SIPRW2_150826_723.JPG: WASP flight jacket
152. SIPRW2_150826_730.JPG: Morale Boosters: Traveling shows brought entertainers and a bit of home to troops in war zones. The United Service Organizations (USO) sponsored many of the shows that brought welcome relief to homesick and battle-weary soldiers, sailors, and airmen. The big events featured stars like Bob Hope, the Andrews Sisters, or Marlene Dietrich, but even visits by struggling singers and three-ball jugglers caused troops to erupt in cheers, laughter, and applause. The USO also operated more than 3,000 centers stateside and overseas. Every day they offered troops a host of social services, as well as opportunities for rest and recreation -- a simple cup of coffee or a swinging dance.
153. SIPRW2_150826_734.JPG: Irving Berlin
154. SIPRW2_150826_736.JPG: Irving Berlin: "This is the Army" -- Irving Berlin's morale-boosting, money-raising musical extravaganza with an all-soldiers-and-sailors cast -- opened on Broadway on July 4, 1942. It toured the country and played to troops in North Africa, Europe, and the Pacific.
155. SIPRW2_150826_740.JPG: Mail Call: American GIs wrote and received millions of letters, so many that the War Department started V-mail -- correspondence was microfilmed, transported, then printed for distribution.
156. SIPRW2_150826_767.JPG: My View: Lee H. Mahoney "You won't find one barracks overseas that hasn't got an Esquire Pin-Up Girl. I, for one, have close to fifteen of them... Those pictures are very much on the clean and healthy side and it gives us guys a good idea of what we're fighting for." -- Fireman Second Class Lee Mahoney, 1944
157. SIPRW2_150826_769.JPG: Pinups: Morale-boosting pinups adorned the billets of American GIs worldwide; they were even kept in the liners of their helmets. Many variants of the sultry Varga girl by Alberto Vargas, often clipped from Esquire magazine, were favorites, as were photographs of Hollywood stars like Rita Hayworth and Betty Grable.
158. SIPRW2_150826_772.JPG: Betty Grable, 1943: 20th Century Fox Studios distributed five million copies of this publicity photo to US troops.
159. SIPRW2_150826_808.JPG: Congressional Gold Medal presented collectively to the US Army's 100th Infantry Battalion, 442nd Regimental Combat Team, and the Japanese Americans in the Military Intelligence Service -- the Nisei soldiers of World War II.
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2015 photos: Equipment this year: I mostly used my Fuji XS-1 camera but, depending on the event, I also used a Nikon D7000. I retired from the US Census Bureau in god-forsaken Suitland, Maryland on my 58th birthday in May. Yee ha! Trips this year: a quick trip to Florida. two Civil War Trust conferences (Raleigh, NC and Richmond, VA), and my 10th consecutive San Diego Comic-Con trip (including Los Angeles). Ego Strokes: Carolyn Cerbin used a Kevin Costner photo in her USA Today article. Miss DC pictures were used a few times in the Washington Post. Number of photos taken this year: just over 550,000.
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