BGuthrie Photos: DC -- Natl Museum of American History -- Exhibit: Price of Freedom -- Civil War

DC -- Natl Museum of American History -- Exhibit: Price of Freedom -- Civil War:

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Copyrights: All pictures were taken by amateur photographer Bruce Guthrie (me!) who retains copyright on them. Free for non-commercial use with attribution. See the [Creative Commons] definition of what this means. "Photos (c) Bruce Guthrie" is fine for attribution. (Commercial use folks including AI scrapers can of course contact me.) Feel free to use in publications and pages with attribution but you don't have permission to sell the photos themselves. A free copy of any printed publication using any photographs is requested. Descriptive text, if any, is from a mixture of sources, quite frequently from signs at the location or from official web sites; copyrights, if any, are retained by their original owners.

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Specific picture descriptions: Photos above with "i" icons next to the bracketed sequence numbers (e.g. "[1] ") are described as follows:
1. SIPRCI_150723_001.JPG: Army Cannon: This U.S. Army Model 1841 cannon was manufactured in 1845 by N.P.Ames of Springfield, Massachusetts. It probably saw service in the Mexican War. Initially, the smoothbore cannon was designed to fire a 6-pound shot. Around 1861, guns of this type were bored out and rifled to fire a 12-pound James shell. This modification increased accuracy and range. However, the rifling wore quickly, making the barrel prone to bursting. Model 1841 cannons were retired soon after the start of the Civil War. Members of the Kansas Free-State Battery with cannon, 1856: Note the pile of shot near the cannon wheel
2. SIPRCI_150723_004.JPG: 12-pound James shell: The accuracy and distance of these shells were substantially greater than that of shot. James shells contained explosives which significantly improved their effectiveness.
3. SIPRCI_150723_013.JPG: The carriage is stamped "US Watertown Arsenal 1864"
4. SIPRCI_150723_018.JPG: My View: Stephen Douglas: "If the people of Kansas want a slaveholding state, let them have it, and if they want a free state they have a right to it, and it is not for the people of Illinois, or Missouri, or New York, or Kentucky, to complain, whatever the decision of the people of Kansas may be." -- Stephen Douglas, senator from Illinois and principal author of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, 1858
5. SIPRCI_150723_019.JPG: Bleeding Kansas: The fighting over slavery in the Kansas Territory foreshadowed the Civil War. Determining the status of slavery in the new western territories had long been a troubling issue for the federal government. In 1854 the matter became critical when Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act. It split the Nebraska Territory into two parts and authorized settlers in each area to choose whether they would allow or prohibit slavery. The presumption was that Nebraska would vote to be free, and Kansas would support slavery. For the next seven years, proslavery and antislavery settlers in Kansas battled over the issue, often resorting to bloody violence.
6. SIPRCI_150723_021.JPG: My View: Henry Ward Beecher "If we stand by the men of Kansas... the flame of war will be quenched before it bursts forth... But if our ears are poisoned by the advice of men who never rebuke violence... we shall invite... civil war. And let us known assuredly that civil war will not burst forth in Kansas without spreading." -- Henry Ward Beecher, abolitionist and Presbyterian minister, 1856
7. SIPRCI_150723_024.JPG: Beecher's "Bibles": Henry Ward Beecher and other abolitionist ministers raised money to purchase Sharps rifles for use by antislavery forces in Kansas. Rifles, said Beecher, are "a greater moral agency that the Bible" in the fight against slavery. The guns came in crates labeled "Bibles" so they could not arouse suspicion. Soon all guns sent to "Free-Soilers" were called Beecher's Bibles.
8. SIPRCI_150723_028.JPG: John Brown: Abolitionist Warrior: No abolitionist came to Kansas more passionate about fighting slavery than John Brown, who arrived in 1855 to join several of his sons. Proslavery forces terrorized the region. In May 1856, Brown led a group that struck back, murdering five proslavery settlers. Brown escaped punishment and became famous for his crusade.
9. SIPRCI_150723_031.JPG: .44-calber Sharps percussion sporting rifle made for John Brown and used in Kansas in 1856 .31-caliber "belt revolver" with Maynard primer: John Brown purchased 2,000 of these from the Massachusetts Arms Co. and sent them to Kansas.
10. SIPRCI_150723_036.JPG: .52-caliber Model 1853 Sharps carbines
11. SIPRCI_150723_039.JPG: Split Over Slavery: Northerners and Southerners, long divided over the question of slavery, became increasingly polarized in the 1850s. In 1859, more than 3.5 million slaves labored in the Southern states. In the lower South, they were 47 percent of the total population. Slavery was profitable, and although some other nations had ended it, there were no signs it was dying in the United States. Many Northerners had opposed the spread of slavery into new US territories for decades, and a small minority wanted to abolish it altogether. Abolitionist sentiment ran strong in the new Republican Party, and Southerners feared for the future of their "peculiar institution" if Republicans gained power.
12. SIPRCI_150723_044.JPG: John Brown, a militant abolitionist who had been fighting slavery in Kansas, came east to Virginia in 1859 to inspire a slave uprising.
13. SIPRCI_150723_049.JPG: John Brown's Raid: John Brown led a raid on the federal armory at Harpers Ferry, hoping to ignite a slave rebellion. He failed, but became a martyr. On October 16, 1859, John Brown and a small group of militants seized the federal armory and its weapons, but waited in vain for the slave uprising they hoped would follow. They next day, US Army officers Robert E. Lee and J.E.B. Stuart brought in a company of marines and stormed the fire-engine house where Brown had retreated. They captured him and his band, and killed two of his sons. Brown was hanged, along with with six other conspirators. In death, he became a martyr for abolitionists. "I am worth inconceivably more to hang," he said, "than for any other purpose."
14. SIPRCI_150723_052.JPG: Iron slave collar that once had three prongs. Collars often had bells, and were used to track and discipline slaves. William Chinn, a branded slave from Indiana.
15. SIPRCI_150723_056.JPG: .52-caliber Sharps carbine used by Brown and his men.
16. SIPRCI_150723_059.JPG: Pike: One of 950 Brown and his men planned to give to slave insurgents
17. SIPRCI_150723_062.JPG: Civil War 1861-1865 Americans battled each other over preserving their Union and ending slavery. Section Highlights: First Battle of Bull Run, 1861 Antietam, the Bloodiest Day, 1862 Lincoln, Commander in Chief Battle of Gettysburg, 1863 Sherman's March to the Sea, 1864 Civil War Leaders Naval Warfare Lee Surrenders to Grant, 1865 Soldiers in Blue and Gray
18. SIPRCI_150723_065.JPG: Virginia Militia: These Virginia militiamen displayed the confidence of Confederate recruits before they went to war. Many believed they would "whip the Yankees" in just a few months. Enlistments initially lasted only a year.
19. SIPRCI_150723_068.JPG: Confederate War Strategy: The goal of the Confederates was to win the war by not losing. The Confederates needed only to prolong their conflict long enough to convince the Union that victory would be too costly to bear. When opportunities arose, they would augment this strategy with selective offensive strikes. The Confederacy had fewer men, less capital, and less industrial capacity than the North, but its defensive strategy might prevail. And if it could convince France and England to recognize and support its government, chances of victory were even greater.
20. SIPRCI_150723_074.JPG: Battle Map: Created by Samuel P. Mitchell of the First Virginia Regiment, this map gives a participant's view of the distribution of forces at the battle of Bull Run.
21. SIPRCI_150723_078.JPG: Look Closely: Battle Names: Northerners and Southerners often referred to battles in the Civil War by different names. The North usually favored geographic features like rivers (Bull Run); the South favored towns (Manassas).
22. SIPRCI_150723_082.JPG: The first major clash of the Civil War shattered illusions that either side would win quickly or easily.
23. SIPRCI_150723_084.JPG: Battle of Bull Run, July 21, 1861: The battle of Bull Run, the first major clash in the Civil War, ended in a Confederate victory. President Lincoln wanted to move quickly against the enemy, hoping a decisive victory would quell the rebellion. He ordered General Irvin McDowell to strike Confederate forces at Manassas Junction, as a step toward taking Richmond. Attacking early in the morning, Union forces first seemed to be winning, but the Confederates checked their advance. Confederate general Thomas Jackson earned the nickname "Stonewall" for his stout defensive stance. Late in the day, the Confederates counterattacked. Weary Union troops retreated, then panicked and fled helter-skelter back to Washington.
24. SIPRCI_150723_090.JPG: Civil War Cavalry: The most important cavalry role was serving as the "eyes" of each army, providing intelligence on enemy movements. Cavalry also screened troop movements and acted as a mobile strike force. Union leaders initially regarded cavalry as somewhat superfluous, but the performance of the Southern cavalry at Bull Run convinced them to strengthen Union cavalry forces.
25. SIPRCI_150723_096.JPG: Zouave uniform of the Fifth New York Volunteer Infantry, known as Duryee's Zouaves after the regiment commander, Colonel Abram Duryee. The uniform is patterned after that of the French Zouaves (originally an infantry unit comprised of Algerians), with its fez, short jacket, and baggy trousers known as serouels.
26. SIPRCI_150723_103.JPG: "The Great Skedaddle": This London cartoon satirizes the Union defeat and uncoordinated retreat. But it was no laughing matter in Washington. Many feared that the capital would soon fall and the North might lose the war. Lincoln concluded that winning would take longer than he had hoped and called for another 500,000 volunteers.
27. SIPRCI_150723_108.JPG: Confederate States of America's first national flag known as the Stars and Bars. Used until May 1863, it was sometimes confused with the Union flag.
28. SIPRCI_150723_117.JPG: Thirty-four-star US national flag
29. SIPRCI_150723_120.JPG: Union War Strategy: Unlike the Confederates, the Union had to fight and win an offensive war. Lincoln and his advisors developed a multipart strategy to defeat the South. First, they would negotiate with border states like Maryland to keep them in the Union. Second, they would blockade Southern ports, thus restricting trade with Europe. Third, they would capture strongholds along the Mississippi River, isolating the southwestern states from the eastern ones. Finally, they would advance into the Confederate heartland, especially toward its capital in Richmond, Virginia. Although details of this plan changed during the war, the basic outline remained the key to victory.
30. SIPRCI_150723_124.JPG: Union "Grand Strategy": This map illustrates the military strategy President Lincoln developed with General Winfield Scott and other wartime leaders.
31. SIPRCI_150723_132.JPG: Casualties of War: Neither the Union nor the Confederate army was prepared to handle the staggering onslaught of battlefield wounded. Many of the war's earliest casualties were left on the field for days before they died or were removed to hospitals. But both armies soon developed litter corps and ambulance services. They established mobile operating tables and field hospitals, and recruited more doctors. Surgeons amputated shattered limbs, probed wounds to extract bullets with their bare fingers, and stitched bowels together. They neglected to wash their hands or sterilize instruments. Thousands of soldiers died from subsequent infections; but thousands survived -- maimed, but alive.
32. SIPRCI_150723_135.JPG: Crutches made by a family slave and used by Colonel John Singleton Mosby
33. SIPRCI_150723_141.JPG: My View: Clara Barton "The ground, for acres, was a thinly wooded slope -- and among the trees on the leaves and grass, were laid the wounded who were pouring in by scores of wagon loads ... we were a little band of almost empty handed workers literally by ourselves in the wild woods of Virginia, with 3000 suffering men crowded upon the few acres." -- Clara Barton, volunteer nurse, 1862
34. SIPRCI_150723_144.JPG: Spotsylvania Tree Stump: Until May 12, 1864, this shattered stump was a large oak tree in a meadow outside Spotsylvania Court House, Virginia. That morning, 1,200 entrenched Confederates, the front line of Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, awaited the assault of 5,000 Union troops from the Second Corps of the Army of the Potomac. Twenty hours later, the once-peaceful meadow had acquired a new name, the Bloody Angle. The same fury of bullets that cut down 2,000 combatants tore away all but twenty-two inches of the tree's trunk.
35. SIPRCI_150723_165.JPG: Minie Ball: Named for a French Army officer, minie balls were conical-shaped bullets with hollow bases. Exploding powder expanded the lead into the barrel's rifling, giving the balls spin and making them fly farther and straighter. Minie ball and cutaway model
36. SIPRCI_150723_171.JPG: Artillery: The 12-pound James shell was fired from smoothbore cannons that had been rifled using a process devised by Charles James. Although this alteration made the cannons more accurate, the rifling wore out quickly. James was a US senator and major general in the Rhode Island State Militia. 12-pound James shell
37. SIPRCI_150723_174.JPG: Bloody Battles: Federal troops -- and later Confederates -- used advanced weapons: rifled muskets that fired spinning, cone-shaped minie balls; rapid-fire, breech-loading rifles; and rifled artillery. But both sides employed these weapons in traditional short-range fire between massed lines of soldiers, with deadly results.
38. SIPRCI_150723_180.JPG: Henry Rifle: This .44-caliber, gold-mounted, engraved Henry rifle was given to Abraham Lincoln to try to win his endorsement. The army brought about 1,730 Henry rifles between 1862 and 1865, but some western units also purchased them at their own expense. The Henry was soon followed by the famous Winchester rifle.
39. SIPRCI_150723_190.JPG: Ferocious Fire: These minie balls from opposing sides met head-on during fierce fighting at the battle of Fredericksburg, Virginia, in December 1862. The exhibit opened back in 2004 and it hasn't help up that well. Dust covers most of the signs, making them hard to read. Signs and artifacts are poorly lit. Try as I could, I just couldn't see the fuzed balls from this display.
40. SIPRCI_150723_197.JPG: Early Southern Victories: In 1862, Confederate generals Robert E. Lee and Thomas E. "Stonewall" Jackson repeatedly outwitted and outmaneuvered Union generals. Lincoln and his advisors planned to hold Confederate forces in western Virginia while launching an amphibious invasion that would move up the peninsula from the Chesapeake Bay to Richmond, capturing the Confederate capital. But in the Shenandoah Valley, Stonewall Jackson deftly maneuvered his forces to defeat Union troops time and again. To the east, General Lee assumed command of the Confederate army, stopped General George B. McClellan's Union advance just miles from Richmond, then counterattacked and pushed him off the peninsula.
41. SIPRCI_150723_211.JPG: Peninsula Campaign: Troop movements during the campaign, March-July 1862
42. SIPRCI_150723_220.JPG: Confederate battle flag developed after the first battle of Bull Run -- reportedly by General Pierre Beauregard -- when soldiers had trouble distinguishing the Confederate Stars and and Bars from the US national flag.
43. SIPRCI_150723_223.JPG: Lincoln Meets McClellan: General McClellan stopped General Lee's advance an Antietam, but was faulted for failing to pursue and destroy his army. President Lincoln soon replaced McClellan as commander of the Army of the Potomac with Ambrose Burnside.
44. SIPRCI_150723_225.JPG: Battle of Antietam: General Lee crossed the Potomac River and carried the war into Maryland in September 1862. Lee had defeated the Union army on the Virginia peninsula in May, and again at the second battle of Bull Run in August. Invading Union territory, he reasoned, might strengthen antiwar sentiment in the North and win the South recognition and aid from Europe. On September 17, Lee met General McClellan in the bloodiest single day of fighting in the war, indeed, in American history. Union casualties at Antietam were 12,400, including 2,100 killed; Southern casualties were 10,320, including 1,550 killed. While the outcome was a stalemate, Lee retreated to Virginia.
45. SIPRCI_150723_227.JPG: My Turn: Charles Fuller "The dead and wounded were a horrible sight to behold. This sunken road... was a good many rods long, and, for most of the way, there were enough dead and badly wounded to touch one another as they lay side by side. As we found them in some cases, they were two and three deep." -- Sergeant Charles Fuller, Sixty-first New York Infantry, 1862
46. SIPRCI_150723_232.JPG: Chess set used by General George B. McClellan throughout the war.
47. SIPRCI_150723_240.JPG: Integration in the Navy: The Union navy was integrated from the outset of the Civil War. By its end, around 15 percent of the navy, over 18,000 sailors, were African Americans. They were among the crews that manned the gunboats in the fight for Vicksburg. Blacks and whites routinely worked and lived together on ships.
48. SIPRCI_150723_243.JPG: African American Soldiers: African Americans were anxious to join the war effort. The Union refused them at first, but eventually relented. At the outside of the war, the Union would not recruit African Americans, although escaped slaved, or contrabands, served in some units. But as the war progressed and casualties mounted, so did the need for more troops. In 1863, the Union began recruiting free blacks; eventually some 180,000 served. They received three-quarters pay initially and mostly served under white officers. Many distinguished themselves in battle, but others had to shovel horse manure or dig entrenchments. At Milliken's Bend near Vicksburg, two regiments of black soldiers, supported by gunboats, halted a Confederate advance.
49. SIPRCI_150723_256.JPG: Battle of Vicksburg: Union forces struggled to win control of Vicksburg, the Confederate stronghold atop bluffs overlooking the Mississippi River. During the first two years of the war, the Union army and navy secured Tennessee and won control of the upper and lower Mississippi River. But they repeatedly failed to dislodge Confederate forces from their stronghold at Vicksburg, Mississippi. For months, General Ulysses S. Grant tried different approaches to take the city. Finally, in the summer of 1863, he resorted to a siege. For seven weeks, Union gunboats and artillery bombarded the town, while armies clashed and residents huddled in caves and dirt bunkers. On July 4, Vicksburg surrendered.
50. SIPRCI_150723_259.JPG: My View: Emma Balfour "We have spent the last two nights in a cave, but tonight I think we will stay at home. It is not safe I know... In one of the hospitals where some wounded had just undergone operations a shell exploded and six men had to have limbs amputated. It is horrible and the worst of it is we cannot help it." -- Emma Balfour, Vicksburg resident, 1863
51. SIPRCI_150723_264.JPG: Presidential gold medal presented to General Ulysses S. Grant for his victory at Vicksburg
52. SIPRCI_150723_266.JPG: My View: George Pickett "Even now I can hear them cheering as I gave the order. 'Forward!' I can feel the thrill of their joyous voices as they called out all along the line, 'We'll follow you, Marse George....' Oh, how faithfully they kept their word -- following me on-on -- to their death, and I, believing in the promised support, led them on-on-on -- Oh, God!" -- General George Pickett to his wife, after his disastrous charge at Gettysburg, July 6, 1863
53. SIPRCI_150723_269.JPG: Battle of Gettysburg: After a major victory at Chancellorsville, Virginia, Robert E. Lee launched a second invasion of the North -- and again failed. Marching 75,000 men through Maryland into Pennsylvania, Lee hoped to reach Harrisburg. But General George Meade, now in command of the Army of the Potomac, met him at Gettysburg with 88,000 men on July 1, 1863. Meade's forces occupied the high ground. For three days, the two armies battled, with terrible losses. General George Pickett led the final Southern assault, against the center of the Union line. When it failed, Lee recognized defeat, retreated, and abandoned his hope of taking the war into Northern territory.
54. SIPRCI_150723_273.JPG: A Harvest of Death: This famous 1863 photograph, which appeared in Alexander Gardner's Photographic Sketch Book of the Civil War, shows a few of the thousands who died at Gettysburg.
55. SIPRCI_150723_278.JPG: Model 1850 officer's sword carried by Colonel Strong Vincent, mortally wounded at Little Round Top, Gettysburg.
56. SIPRCI_150723_279.JPG: Abraham Lincoln sat at the center of the war. Its outcome turned on his decisions about military issues and slavery. The 1864 presidential campaign was held in the Union states despite the ongoing fighting. President Lincoln and his running mate Andrew Johnson, a Southern Unionist from Tennessee, are shown on the Grand National Union (Republican) campaign banner. Their Democratic opponents, General George B. McClellan and George H. Pendleton from Ohio, are shown on the Grand National Democratic campaign banner. Lincoln and Johnson won 55 percent of the popular vote.
57. SIPRCI_150723_285.JPG: Freeing the States: Although Lincoln had always opposed slavery, he had not favored abolition when elected. But after the battle of Antietam, he decided that freeing the slaves in the rebellious South was critical to winning the war. The Emancipation Proclamation of January 1, 1863, made a negotiated settlement between North and South almost impossible. It solidified Lincoln's political support. It ended the possibility that England would recognize the Confederacy. It encouraged Southern slaves to escape and join the Union army. And it was a major step toward a more just nation, where all would be free.
58. SIPRCI_150723_287.JPG: Appointing Grant: In 1864, Lincoln named Ulysses S. Grant general in chief of all the armies, then supported him as he led the Union to victory. At the beginning of the war, the Union army had suffered from uneven senior leadership. Despite superior numbers, equipment, supplies, and rail transportation, Union generals continually lost important battles. Although Lincoln had little military experience himself, he exercised his authority as commander in chief and replaced his generals one after another. He finally found the determined military leader he sought in Grant.
59. SIPRCI_150723_290.JPG: Winning Reelection: To win the war, Lincoln had to maintain popular support and win reelection in November 1864. His Democratic opponent was George McClellan, the man Lincoln had named and then replaced as general of the Army of the Potomac. Although McClellan himself vacillated on negotiating peace, many of his supporters strongly favored it. In early 1864, Lincoln was convinced that a war-weary electorate would vote against him. But by election day, military successes by Generals Grant, Sheridan, and Sherman gave voters confidence that victory was near, and Lincoln handily won reelection.
60. SIPRCI_150723_296.JPG: Commission of Ulysses S. Grant to major general, July 4, 1863
61. SIPRCI_150723_307.JPG: Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on this continent, a new nation, conceived in Liberty, and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal. Now we are engaged in a great civil war, testing whether that nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long endure. We are met on a great battle-field of that war. We have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. But, in a larger sense, we can not dedicate -- we can not consecrate -- we can not hallow -- this ground. The brave men, living and dead, who struggled here, have consecrated it, far above our poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what they did here. It is for us the living, rather, to be dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task remaining before us -- that from these honored dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the last full measure of devotion -- that we here highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain -- that this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom -- and that government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall not perish from the earth. Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address, November 19, 1863
62. SIPRCI_150723_312.JPG: The Bitterness Left Behind: Sherman's campaign sowed bitterness that persisted in the South for generations. One Southerner who fought him said, "the conduct of Sherman's army ... is reprehensible in the extreme."
63. SIPRCI_150723_315.JPG: Sherman's Gift to Lincoln: In this telegram of December 22, 1864, General Sherman wrote to President Lincoln: "I beg to present you as a Christmas gift the City of Savannah, with 150 heavy guns and plenty of ammunition, and also about 25,000 bales of cotton." Lincoln, who was also celebrating victories over Confederates in Tennessee, was pleased.
64. SIPRCI_150723_318.JPG: Sherman's Bow Ties: To disrupt rail transport and make the tracks hard to repair, Sherman's men heated rails and bent them around trees, calling them "Sherman's bow ties." Remembering the march, one soldier said they "burned their cotton and gins, spilled their sorghum, burned & twisted their R. Roads and raised Hell generally."
65. SIPRCI_150723_320.JPG: Fleeing from Sherman: Fearing destruction from the Union army as it marched through, some families chose to flee. The army foraged for its supplies, and although the troops were told not to pillage, the orders were largely ignored. The estimated cost to the South of Sherman's destruction was around $100 million.
66. SIPRCI_150723_322.JPG: Sherman's March: Starting in Chattanooga, Sherman advanced carefully toward Atlanta, thrusting and parrying with the army of General Joe Johnston, but never engaging in a major battle. Dissatisfied with Johnston's performance, Jefferson Davis replaced him with General John B. Hood, who fought Sherman fiercely around Atlanta, but failed to stop him.
67. SIPRCI_150723_330.JPG: Union leaders believed cutting a path of destruction through the Confederates' heartland would break their will to fight. Sherman's March: In March 1864, William T. Sherman assumed command of the Union army in the west. In May, he began a destructive march through the Southern heartland. Sherman had a different view of warfare than his contemporaries Grant and Lee. In his mind, wars were not between armies, but between people. Winning did not mean destroying the enemy's army, but crushing the people's will to fight. As Sherman marched south from Tennessee, he focused on making Southerners feel the horrible cost of war. By July he had fought his way to Atlanta and it fell on September 2. Sherman continued his campaign with a brutal march to the sea, spreading out his army and cutting swaths of destruction. Reaching Savannah in December, he presented its capture to Lincoln as a "Christmas gift."
68. SIPRCI_150723_333.JPG: Campaign hat worn by General William T. Sherman
69. SIPRCI_150723_342.JPG: Model 1850 staff and field officer's sword worn by General William T. Sherman during the battle of Shiloh, Tennessee, April 1862
70. SIPRCI_150723_349.JPG: Army Leaders: Robert E. Lee and Ulysses S. Grant rose to become the most important commanders of the Confederate and Union armies. Lee's military expertise was recognized before the war. He turned down President Lincoln's offer to command the Union army before he pledged his allegiance to the South. Hallmarks of Lee's leadership were his audacity, his skillful maneuvers, and his keen insight into his opponent's likely moves. Unlike Lee, Grant earned his reputation for military leadership during the Civil War. He became known for his persistence, ingenuity, and understanding of how to use Union superiority in manpower, weaponry, and logistics to his advantage.
71. SIPRCI_150723_366.JPG: Slouch hat worn by Colonel Mosby, who reportedly left it at Rector's Crossroads, Virginia, in 1864. It was returned forty years later by a Union cavalry officer's daughter.
72. SIPRCI_150723_369.JPG: Cavalry Leaders: The cavalry played many roles in the Civil War, including fathering intelligence, making lightning raids, and screening troop movements. Philip Sheridan was the most successful Union cavalry leader. Taking charge of the Army of the Potomac cavalry in 1864, he defeated Lee's cavalry in the battle of Yellow Tavern, Virginia, where Confederate leader J.E.B. Stuart was killed. Sheridan's cavalry later blocked Lee's retreat from Appomattox, forcing his surrender. In contrast to Sheridan, Confederate cavalryman John Mosby won his fame leading Partisan Rangers and using guerrilla tactics. With a small band of men, he wreaked havoc behind Union lines. A master of the lightning raid, he was nicknamed "Gray Ghost."
73. SIPRCI_150723_378.JPG: Cavalry jacket worn by John Mosby
74. SIPRCI_150723_381.JPG: Cavalry saber and scabbard used by General Philip Sheridan
75. SIPRCI_150723_389.JPG: Ironstone vegetable dish bearing the Alabama insignia
76. SIPRCI_150723_391.JPG: Navy Leaders: Naval operations along the coast and on the high seas were critical additions to land warfare. Sixty years old when the war began, David Farragut stood out among the Union naval officers. In April 1862, he captured New Orleans. A year later he helped Grant take Vicksburg. Then in August 1864 he captured Mobile Bay, exclaiming, "Damn the torpedoes, full speed ahead!" A contrast to Farragut was the Confederacy's Raphael Semmes, who excelled in Commerce raiding. He captured or sank some eighty ships valued at over six million dollars, most as commander of the CSS Alabama, a British-built sloop that attacked Union shipping from 1862 to 1864.
77. SIPRCI_150723_396.JPG: Service dress coat worn by David Farragut
78. SIPRCI_150723_401.JPG: Service dress cap worn by David Farragut in Mobile Bay
79. SIPRCI_150723_404.JPG: In 1864, Ulysses S. Grant relentlessly attacked Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia. From the Wilderness to Cold Harbor; In May 1864, Ulysses S. Grant launched a new attack on Robert E. Lee's army, and battled south toward Richmond. In the tangled woods of northeastern Virginia known as the Wilderness, Grant's army of 120,000 began a brutal fight against Lee's 63,000 troops that traversed 100 miles and lasted forty-four days. Grant attacked Lee several times, but failed to break his lines. Undeterred, Grant moved on toward Richmond, only to have Lee follow and block him again. At Cold Harbor, Grant launched a furious assault against what he thought was a tired and beaten enemy -- and suffered a bloody repulse. Union losses during the campaign topped 60,000 and Confederate losses were nearly 30,000. But neither army was ready to abandon the fight.
80. SIPRCI_150723_410.JPG: Petersburg and Richmond: In June 1864, Grant headed to Petersburg, a railhead south of Richmond that was vital to supplying the Confederate capital. Following his defeat at Cold Harbor, Grant moved south, still intent on capturing Richmond. Unlike Union generals who previously had tried and failed to take the Confederate capital in direct assaults, Grant bypassed the city to cut its vital rail links at nearby Petersburg. When Grant found Petersburg too well-fortified for a direct assault, Union forces dug in, building miles of trenches and siege works, for a ten-month siege. In early April 1865, Grant finally seized the railroad. Lee then abandoned both Petersburg and nearby Richmond.
81. SIPRCI_150723_415.JPG: Appomattox Furniture: Chairs and table used at the surrender at Appomattox. Lee sat in the caned armchair, Grant in the upholstered chair. Grant signed the surrender document on the table. The furniture came to the Smithsonian early in the 20th century.
82. SIPRCI_150723_423.JPG: Appomattox Furniture: Chairs and table used at the surrender at Appomattox. Lee sat in the caned armchair, Grant in the upholstered chair. Grant signed the surrender document at the table. The furniture came to the Smithsonian early in the 20th century.
83. SIPRCI_150723_427.JPG: Wilmer McLean's Home: The site of Lee's surrender to Grant was the parlor of Wilmer McLean's home, adjacent to Appomattox Court House. McLean had lived near Manassas in 1861, and his house had been a Confederate headquarters. He moved to remote Appomattox to escape the war, and it ended in his own home.
84. SIPRCI_150723_431.JPG: Surrender at Appomattox: On April 9, 1865, Robert E. Lee surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant, signaling the end of the war. Lee retreated from Richmond intent on continuing the fight. But he found his battered army surrounded and outnumbered and realized the end had come. On April 9, 1865, he surrendered to Ulysses S. Grant. Grant offered generous terms, allowing the defeated soldiers to return home with their small arms and giving them rations. Other Confederate armies soon surrendered. American never forgot the ruthless conflict they had waged against each other, or its bitter legacy: 620,000 lost their lives; 400,000 had been scarred, maimed, or disabled.
85. SIPRCI_150723_441.JPG: Parole for General Lee: Lee and his officers signed this parole document: "We, the undersigned prisoners of war belonging to the Army of Northern Virginia, having been this day surrendered by General Robert E. Lee, C. S. Army, commanding said army, to Lieut. Gen. U. S. Grant, commanding Armies of the United States, do hereby give our solemn parole of honor that we will not hereafter serve in the armies of the Confederate States, or in any military capacity whatever, against the United States of America, or render aid to the enemies of the latter, until properly exchanged, in such manner as shall be mutually approved by the respective authorities. "Done at Appomattox Court. House, Va., this 9th day of April, 1865"
86. SIPRCI_150723_444.JPG: My View: Horace Porter "General Grant... stepped down for the porch, and, moving toward [Lee], saluted him by raising his hat. He has followed in this act of courtesy by all our officers present; Lee raised his hat respectfully, and rode off to break the sad news to the brave fellows whom he had so long commanded." -- General Horace Porter, aide-de-camp for General Grant, 1865
87. SIPRCI_150723_455.JPG: "Now He Belongs to the Angels" * Abraham Lincoln was assassinated in Washington, DC, on April 14, 1865. When he died, so did his vision for reuniting the nation. The audience at Ford's Theatre was startled to head a gunshot from the president's box, and baffled when actor John Wilkes Booth leaped onto the stage, yelling of vengeance. But Mary Lincoln's screams revealed the tragedy. The president was shot once in the head, and died early the next morning. Northerners were shocked and saddened, then enraged. Even as preparations for his funeral began, a Washington insider noted that Lincoln's "humane policy" for reuniting North and South now would be "tempered with a great deal of severity." * Secretary of War Edwin Stanton uttered these words when Lincoln died, according to notes made by James Tanner, a government stenographer who recorded what was said y those attending Lincoln in his final hours. Others reported that Stanton said "He belongs to the ages now," "He is a man for the ages," or the oft-quoted "Now he belongs to the ages."
88. SIPRCI_150723_458.JPG: "Sic semper tyrannis! The South is avenged!" -- John Wilkes Booth, Southern sympathizer and Lincoln's assassin "It is the worst calamity that could happen to the Southern people... Now that he is bead... the South is likely to be looked upon as conquered country, and treated accordingly." -- Charles Hardee, Confederate veteran "I am stunned, as by a fearful personal calamity, though I can see that this thing, occurring just at this time, may be overruled to our great good... Let us henceforth deal with rebels as they deserve." -- George Templeton Strong, lawyer and abolitionist "Though the Union was more to him than our freedom or our future, under his wise and beneficent rule we saw ourselves gradually lifted from the depths of slavery to the heights of liberty and manhood." -- Frederick Douglass, former slave, orator, and abolitionist
89. SIPRCI_150723_469.JPG: Lincoln's Reconstruction: President Lincoln hoped that relations between the Union and the seceded states could be restored on the basis of reconciliation, not retribution. The president greeted news of Robert E. Lee's surrender by asking a band on the White House lawn to play "Dixie." Lincoln hoped that the nation could be reunited without rancor, but he found himself at odds with Republicans in Congress. They wanted to punish the South for seceding and wanted Southern states to guarantee the freedom and rights of African Americans. Lincoln's assassination, and the ineffectual leadership of his successor, Andrew Johnson, enabled the Congress to control Reconstruction. They divided the South into military districts, withholding statehood from some former Confederate states until 1870.
90. SIPRCI_150723_472.JPG: "With malice toward none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, to care for him who shall have borne the battle and for his widow and his orphan, to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations." -- From Abraham Lincoln's second inaugural address, 1865
91. SIPRCI_150723_481.JPG: Carte de Visite Camera: This camera, built by the E. & H.T. Anthony Company of New York, made cartes de visite. The multiple lenses created four images simultaneously. Photographers used the wet-plate collodion process and produced glossy albumen prints, which were mounted on separate cards.
92. SIPRCI_150723_490.JPG: Civil War Photography: The Civil War era was widely photographed, on the battlefield and in portrait studios. Commercial photography began in the 1830s. By the 1840s, daguerreotype studios started appearing in US cities and towns, bringing America's first boom in popular imagery. Because exposures took ten to fifteen minutes, daguerreotypists often used posing chairs to keep their subjects still. By the 1860s, new and faster processes were available. Especially popular were card photographs, or cartes de visite. These small, relatively inexpensive photographs were given to friends and family and collected in albums. Soldiers frequently had portraits made before they went to war, realizing that these pictures might be their last.
93. SIPRCI_150723_495.JPG: Serving in the Union Navy: The Union navy grew rapidly during the Civil War, expanding from some 9,000 officers and men in 1861 to over 118,000 by 1865. Most new sailors in the Union navy had no experience at sea. Crews included farmers, tradesmen, factory workers, immigrants, non-English-speaking foreigners, and African Americans -- all living, working, and fighting side by side. Some joined to avoid being drafted into the army, where the chance of being killed or wounded was much higher; only about 4,000 Union sailors died during the war. When not called on to do battle, sailors found themselves scrubbing decks, shoveling coal for steam boilers, tending sails, and conducting drills.
94. SIPRCI_150723_498.JPG: "Running the Blockade" This board game made light of a critical problem. As the Union built up its blockades, the Confederacy perfected means of running them. Cargos first were shipped to transfer points such as the Bahamas, then loaded into fast and sleek blockade runners, most built in Britain. They were camouflaged and often too fast to catch. More than half of them got through, even at the end of the war.
95. SIPRCI_150723_503.JPG: Blockading the South: Blockading Southern ports was among the first of the Union's wartime objectives. The task was enormous. At the onset of the war, the US Navy was deployed to blockade 3,500 miles of Confederate coastline with fewer than fifty ships. A makeshift fleet of refitted merchant ships and side-wheel steamers helped the navy grow quickly; by war's end, it numbered 671 vessels. While maintaining the blockade proved challenging, the Union tightened its stranglehold on Southern commerce and trade by capturing and controlling port cities. Near the end of the war, only one Southern harbor remained in Confederate hands -- Charleston, South Carolina, where the war had started at Fort Sumter.
96. SIPRCI_150723_505.JPG: Battle of the Ironclads: The battle between ironclads CSS Virginia and USS Monitor on March 9, 1862, was a dramatic turning point in naval warfare. The Confederacy had few ships in 1861, and its navy secretary, Stephen Mallory, decided to invest in the new technology of ironclads. He built the first with machinery salvaged form the USS Merrimack, and called it CSS Virginia. On its first day on duty, March 8, 1862, the Virginia destroyed several Union ships, but the triumph was short-lived. The next day, it met its match in the USS Monitor, a Union ironclad built on the innovative design of John Ericsson. The battle was a draw, but it illustrated that the future belonged to iron and steel ships.
97. SIPRCI_150723_512.JPG: Piece of armor plate from the CSS Virginia
98. SIPRCI_150723_517.JPG: Assessing the Damage: The Monitor and the Virginia fought for over four hours, hurling hundreds of solid iron shots of each other, as well as exploding shells, grapeshot, and rifle fire. Damage was confined to a few dents and cracks.
99. SIPRCI_150723_520.JPG: Although less intense than land warfare, naval operations in the Civil War were critical to victory. The Civil War at Sea; The Union and the Confederacy had competing strategies for their navies. The principal goal of the Union was blockading Southern ports and choking the flow of supplies. Because the coastline was so long, developing an effective blockade took several years. A second objective was taking control of harbors and rivers, especially the Mississippi. The South's major goal was keeping supplies moving by sea, using blockade runners that could speed past Union ships. A second objective was to raid commerce on the high seas, destroying or stealing Union cargos.
100. SIPRCI_150723_533.JPG: Daughters of the Regiment: Vivandieres -- often the daughters or wives of officers -- accompanied and provided support to many Union and Confederate regiments. Early in the war, newly raised volunteer regiments often appointed local women to accompany them to keep the troops supplied with necessities. Vivandieres sold tobacco, coffee, identification tags, oil lamps, hams, and whiskey. They did laundry, sewed, and cooked. They were quasi-military, often wearing skirted uniforms and sometimes drawing a salary from the regimental paymaster. The name and role of the vivandiere originated with the French Army during the Napoleonic Wars, when one woman was assigned to each regiment in order to reduce the numbers of women following the army.
101. SIPRCI_150723_536.JPG: Identifiers: Early in the war, soldiers often wore their names on pieces of paper pinned to their uniforms so their bodies could be identified if they were killed. Merchants in Union camps were soon selling water-resistant parchment tags and brass medallions that could be stamped with soldiers' names and units and worn around their necks.
102. SIPRCI_150723_549.JPG: Confederate Spies: Spies for the Confederacy slipped in and out of Northern cities and Union strongholds. The government in Richmond loosely coordinated espionage efforts, but most spies for the Confederacy were passionate amateurs. Many were women. Most had little trouble passing through the lines. Sometimes they used their charms on government or military officials to obtain information. Other times they simply eavesdropped on conversations in hotel lobbies, or bought the latest edition of the newspaper. Some were notorious, but most were never detected. Even those revealed to be spies were simply sent on their way; few were imprisoned.
103. SIPRCI_150723_557.JPG: Confederate Infantry: The Confederacy struggled to keep troops equipped and supplied. Confederate soldiers wore various uniforms, although gray jackets became common, often with felt slouch hats. Many had no knapsacks; instead they looped their bedrolls across their torsos. Tents were scarce. Men kept tobacco and pipes, a bit of soap, maybe foraged apples in their haversacks. Many ate their three-day ration of fatback and cornbread, rather than packing it. They filled their canteens with buttermilk or cider, and kept a cup of dip water from streams. They carried their muskets, but most had no cartridge boxes, so they stuffed ammunition into their pockets.
104. SIPRCI_150723_561.JPG: Confederate Allies: An estimated 12,000 American Indians fought for the Confederacy, battling Union advances in the Indian territory of present-day Oklahoma. Most were Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole. Brigadier General Stand Watie, a Cherokee chief, was the last Confederate general to surrender, on June 23, 1865.
105. SIPRCI_150723_563.JPG: Confederate Bowie knife and scabbard
106. SIPRCI_150723_565.JPG: Nurses: Several thousand women worked as nurses in Union and Confederate military hospitals. Necessity forced armies on both sides to add women to their corps of male nurses. The US Army specified that recruits be "plain" and dress simply. Some women were commissioned, many volunteered; others were relatives of the wounded or members of private aid societies. They worked far behind the lines, struggling to keep hundreds of patients washed and fed -- with lemon juice, beef-tea, and milk porridge. They changed dressings and packed wounds. Often they could do little more than comfort the dying.
107. SIPRCI_150723_576.JPG: Prison dinner ware
108. SIPRCI_150723_578.JPG: Prisoners of War: Nearly 195,000 Union soldiers were held in Confederate prison camps; more than 210,000 Confederates were Union prisoners of war. Early in the war, captured soldiers were returned in negotiated exchanges at the end of each battle or released on parole, promising not to rejoin the fight. But by 1863, prisoner negotiations were abandoned and thousands were sent to prison camps instead. Union prisoners were crowded into converted cotton factories and tobacco warehouses, even open stockades. Confederates were packed into coastal forts, barracks, and tent camps. Prisoners on both sides suffered horribly, living in filth, malnourished, and plagued by disease. Thousands died; those who survived wasted away to living skeletons.
109. SIPRCI_150723_584.JPG: Musicians: Drum and shrill fifes called out orders in camp and in the heat of battle; the bright melodies of brass bands rallied spirits. Drummers and fifers conveyed critical information. In camp, they announced the routines of the day: reveille, assembly, surgeon's calls, lights out. On the move and in battle, they relayed orders: slow march, quick time, halt, commence fishing, march in retreat. Many regiments boasted uniformed brass bands. They played in camp, sometimes even in the midst of battlefield cannonades. Sentimental favorites, patriotic airs, jigs, and polkas rallied troops and, reported one battlefield observer in 1865, "revived the drooping spirits of many a weary soldier."
110. SIPRCI_150723_594.JPG: Battle Scars: Solomon Conn of the Eighty-seventh Indiana Volunteers carried this fiddle during the war and carved into it the place names of his unit's encampments and engagements. Like most soldiers, he spent more time in camps or on the march than in battle. Can you find where and when he purchased the fiddle?
111. SIPRCI_150723_607.JPG: Recruiting African Americans: Poster of United States Colored Troops, 1863
112. SIPRCI_150723_611.JPG: Union Infantrymen: Union troops were well-outfitted -- even overburdened -- with army-issued supplies and equipment. Union soldiers wore regulation uniforms of heavy wool -- in just two sizes -- with leather-billed caps and stiff shoes. On a typical twenty-mile march, they packed more than sixty pounds of gear. Atop knapsacks stuffed with extra clothes, a weekly change of underwear, and personal "truck," they carried rolled-up wool and rubber blankets and half a tent. They filled haversacks with salt pork, hardtack, coffee, sugar, dried peas, and perhaps a pickle. They slung canteens and cartridge boxes over their shoulders and carried muskets.
113. SIPRCI_150723_615.JPG: Colors of the Eighty-Fourth Regiment of Infantry, United States Colored Troops, who fought in Louisiana and Texas.
114. SIPRCI_150723_618.JPG: Soldiers in Blue and Gray: Troops on both sides were young and inexperienced; most were in their teens or early twenties. Soldiers in the North were farmers, factory workers, and newly arrived Irish immigrants. In the South, they were farmers, mechanics, and students. Most were volunteers; many were draftees unable to pay a substitute to go in their stead. Many died in the first months from illness or wounds. Those who survived learned to be soldiers in the daily drills and discomforts of camp life, the exhaustion of miles-long marches, and the dry-mouth terror of battle.
115. SIPRCI_150723_636.JPG: Memorializing the Civil War: The Civil War, America's bloodiest conflict, is also its most memorialized war. Shaping remembrance of the war would be the last act of the conflict. Although veterans' groups formed immediately after the war, interest initially lagged. By the 1880s, however, old soldiers on both sides were looking back at their service with nostalgia and pride. Encampments, ceremonies, and veterans in parades became commonplace. Battlefields became parks. Thousands of memorials and cemeteries were dedicated. Beyond recognition and nostalgia, politicians in both North and South molded memories of the war in ways that would bolster their own agendas.
116. SIPRCI_150723_639.JPG: Remembering Gettysburg: In a 1913 Peace Jubilee, ore than 50,000 veterans returned to Gettysburg in the largest reunion of Civil War veterans ever held. Camping on the battlefield, they relieved memories, reenacted battles, and made peace with the past. Reflecting the racism of the era, black veterans were not invited to the celebration.
117. SIPRCI_150723_641.JPG: Winchester Comes to the Smithsonian: In 1922, General Philip Sheridan's famous horse Winchester, which had been preserved in New York since its death in 1878, was sent to the Smithsonian Institution in high style. Originally called Rienzi, the horse was renamed for the town in Virginia where Sheridan began his ride to victory in the battle of Cedar Creek.
118. SIPRCI_150723_656.JPG: Amendment XIII to the Constitution, 1865: Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude ... shall exist within the United States.
119. SIPRCI_150723_657.JPG: The promise: Slavery would end. The reality: To survive, most former slaves had to take low-paying jobs or work as tenant farmers (sharecroppers), delaying hopes of economic advancement.
120. SIPRCI_150723_660.JPG: Amendment XIV to the Constitution, 1868: No State shall ... deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
121. SIPRCI_150723_661.JPG: The promise: Laws would be equally applied. The reality: African Americans in the South were not granted equal protection or due process, and often were subjected to vigilante justice.
122. SIPRCI_150723_662.JPG: Amendment XV to the Constitution, 1870: The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
123. SIPRCI_150723_666.JPG: The promise: All citizens could vote equally. The reality: Intimidation, poll taxes, literacy tests, and other restrictions were put in place to restrict voting by African Americans.
124. SIPRCI_150723_667.JPG: The Medal of Honor: The Medal of Honor is the highest award for bravery given to members of the United States military. Congress established the medal in 1861. President Lincoln approved it for naval service in December and for army service in July 1862. For service in the Civil War, 1,522 medals were awarded: 1,198 for the army, 307 for the navy, and 17 for the marines. Initially criteria for the medal were lax. Not until the early 20th century did new legislation establish rules that restricted the medal to well-documented acts of extreme bravery and self-sacrifice.
125. SIPRCI_150723_671.JPG: Francis Brownell: Private Francis Brownell was awarded the Medal of Honor for the first deed in the Civil War to be so recognized. On May 24, 1861, he "Killed the murderer of Colonel Ellsworth at the Marshall House, Alexandria, Va." Brownell requested and received a second medal that described his action. Both are shown here.
126. SIPRCI_150723_674.JPG: Christian Fleetwood: Sergeant Major Christian Fleetwood was awarded this Medal of Honor for action at Chapin's Farm, Virginia, in September 1864. He "Seized the colors, after 2 color bearers had been shot down, and bore them nobly through the fight." Fleetwood was one of twenty-five African Americans given the medal for Civil War service.
127. SIPRCI_150723_676.JPG: Daniel Butterfield: General Danie Butterfield was awarded this Medal of Honor for bravery at Gaines' Mill, Virginia, in 1862. His citation states: "Seized the colors of the 83rd Pennsylvania Volunteers ... and, under a galling fire of the enemy, encouraged the depleted ranks to renewed exertion." He is also credited with creating the bugle call of taps.
128. SIPRCI_150723_680.JPG: Mary Walker: Dr. Mary Walker is the only woman ever to receive the Medal of Honor. It was awarded in 1865 for service throughout the war "to the sick and wounded soldiers... to the detriment of her own health." Her medal, along with some 900 other medals deemed inappropriate, was revoked in 1917. It was restored by the secretary of the army in 1977.
129. SIPRCI_150821_001.JPG: Winchester Comes to the Smithsonian: In 1922, General Philip Sheridan's famous horse Winchester, which had been preserved in New York since its death in 1878, was sent to the Smithsonian Institution in high style. Originally called Rienzi, the horse was renamed for the town in Virginia where Sheridan began his ride to victory in the battle of Cedar Creek.
130. SIPRCI_150821_013.JPG: Battlefield relics presented to Winfield Scott Hancock at Gettysburg, 1885. General Hancock had been wounded in the battle.
131. SIPRCI_150821_019.JPG: Memorializing the Civil War: The Civil War, America's bloodiest conflict, is also its most memorialized war. Shaping remembrance of the war would be the last act of the conflict. Although veterans' groups formed immediately after the war, interest initially lagged. By the 1880s, however, old soldiers on both sides were looking back at their service with nostalgia and pride. Encampments, ceremonies, and veterans in parades became commonplace. Battlefields became parks. Thousands of memorials and cemeteries were dedicated. Beyond recognition and nostalgia, politicians in both North and South molded memories of the war in ways that would bolster their own agendas.
132. SIPRCI_150821_020.JPG: Remembering Gettysburg: In a 1913 Peace Jubilee, ore than 50,000 veterans returned to Gettysburg in the largest reunion of Civil War veterans ever held. Camping on the battlefield, they relieved memories, reenacted battles, and made peace with the past. Reflecting the racism of the era, black veterans were not invited to the celebration.
133. SIPRCI_150821_036.JPG: Abolitionists: A small but vocal minority in the North, abolitionists were Christian reformers, women, free blacks, and fugitive slaves. Appalled that the "land of the free" was the world's largest slaveholding nation, they advocated federal intervention to rid the nation of a moral evil. More numerous were the "Free-Soilers," who were willing to leave slavery alone in the South but opposed its spread to new territories. Together these groups formed a growing antislavery movement. With the outbreak of war, they demanded that it be a war of emancipation.
134. SIPRCI_150821_043.JPG: Free Laborers: Although many in the North were small farmers or tradesmen, growing numbers -- especially immigrants and free blacks -- found work in expanding urban centers. Many labored in clattering textile mills and steam-powered factories. Most worked twelve-hour days under trying conditions, earned meager wages, and lived with few comforts. Nevertheless, they prized their freedom and hoped that self-discipline and hard work would lead to a better life. When war came, many from this class fought to preserve the Union -- some were drafted, others volunteered.
135. SIPRCI_150821_050.JPG: Industrialists: Many Northerners wanted the federal government to support the growth of American industry and manufacturing, and to expand railroad and canal networks. They wanted higher tariffs on imported goods to protect US industry. And they wanted to expand western settlement. Southerners opposed federal expenditures for internal improvements that bypassed their region. They opposed high tariffs that would hamper the sale of their cotton and tobacco overseas. And they did not want to see a growth of free states in the West that would dilute the power the slave states enjoyed in the US Congress.
136. SIPRCI_150821_056.JPG: A Nation Splitting Apart: Dramatic growth in wealth and population in the United States during the early 19th century magnified differences between the free and slave states. Although most in the North still farmed, the region's economy increasingly depended on capital investment in textile production, transportation, and manufacturing. Laborers worked for wages. In the South, the principal investments were in the human capital of slaves and the large-scale agriculture they made possible. While most free Southerners did not own slaves, the economy and political power of their region depended on those who did. These divergent economic paths strained the political bonds that had held the two regions together in one nation.
137. SIPRCI_150821_060.JPG: Planters: On the eve of the Civil War, the South's agricultural economy was booming. Cotton accounted for three-quarters of the nation's exports. Planters depended on slave labor to maintain their profit margins. Some even argued that slavery was morally superior to the wage-labor system in the North. "Your whole hireling class of manual laborers... is essentially slaves," wrote James Hammond, a South Carolina planter. "The difference.... is, that our slaves are hired for life and well compensated.... yours are hired by the day, not cared for, and scantily compensated."
138. SIPRCI_150821_063.JPG: Southern planter Thomas Ruffin of North Carolina, 1850s
139. SIPRCI_150821_069.JPG: Farmers: Of the total Southern white population of eight million in 1860, only 384,000 owned slaves, and over 80 percent of these had fewer than twenty. Still, the slave system dominated economic activity and shaped Southern culture. Small farmers shared many of the racial and political views of plantation owners. Southerners felt a strong allegiance to their states and region and a shared fear that they were in danger of being dominated by Northern interests. When war came, many were willing to fight to save what they considered their unique way of life.
140. SIPRCI_150821_074.JPG: Slaves: Most slaves labored in fields of rice, sugar, tobacco, and cotton. Others were household workers or skilled artisans -- blacksmiths, carpenters, weavers. Their owners provided them with minimal housing, rations, and clothing. They lived without freedom or power and were subject to physical violence and psychological intimidation. Yet slaves retained a strong sense of identity. They performed acts of daily resistance. They maintained resilient family networks and a sense of community. Before the war, many tried escape to gain their freedom; later, many fought for it.
141. SIPRCI_150821_084.JPG: Abraham Lincoln: Abraham Lincoln came into office with little preparation for leading his country into war. Lincoln began his presidency with a limited mandate, having won only 40 percent of the popular vote, and no Southern states. Reacting to his victory, seven states seceded before he assumed office. Lincoln was a highly skilled lawyer and politician, but had little military experience. He assembled a strong cabinet and committed himself to preserving the Union, by force if necessary. At his inauguration, he proclaimed to the South, "You have no oath registered in heaven to destroy the Government, while I ... have the most solemn one to 'preserve, protect, and defend it.' "
142. SIPRCI_150821_103.JPG: The War Begins: The nation's bloodiest and most divisive war began at Fort Sumter in Charleston, South Carolina, on April 12, 1861. After South Carolina seceded from the Union, the Confederacy demanded that the United States evacuate its fort in Charleston Harbor. Lincoln refused, provoking a Confederate Harbor. Lincoln refused, provoking a Confederate attack. Surrounded and vulnerable, Union forces surrendered the fort after two days of bombardment. The outbreak of war forced wavering states to choose between the Confederacy and the Union, and four more -- Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee -- now seceded.
143. SIPRCI_150821_107.JPG: Look Closely: Father of which Country? As shown in their currency, leaders of the Confederacy were anxious to claim George Washington as a founding figure for their new nation. Washington, they pointed out, was both a Virginian and a slave owner. Like them, he had rebelled when rights were abridged.
144. SIPRCI_150821_119.JPG: Printing plate and proof sheet for Confederate $50 and $100 bills
145. SIPRCI_150821_131.JPG: Seal of the Confederate States of America
146. SIPRCI_150821_136.JPG: Campaign ribbons from the 1860 election
147. SIPRCI_150821_139.JPG: Confederate Articles of War, 1861
148. SIPRCI_150821_144.JPG: Prompted by Lincoln's election as president, seven Southern states seceded from the Union, pushing the nation to the brink of a civil war.
149. SIPRCI_150821_146.JPG: Jefferson Davis: Jefferson Davis had extensive military experience before he assumed the presidency of the new Confederate States of America. A graduate of West Point, Davis had fought Indians for several years along the frontier and later served with distinction in the Mexican War. He had experience in Congress as both a representative and senator, and had been secretary of war under President Franklin Pierce. When he was inaugurated as president of the Confederacy, Davis expressed his hope that separation from the Union would come peacefully. But he warned, "If this be denied to us... it will be remain for us, with firm resolve, to appeal to arms."
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2015 photos: Equipment this year: I mostly used my Fuji XS-1 camera but, depending on the event, I also used a Nikon D7000. I retired from the US Census Bureau in god-forsaken Suitland, Maryland on my 58th birthday in May. Yee ha! Trips this year: a quick trip to Florida. two Civil War Trust conferences (Raleigh, NC and Richmond, VA), and my 10th consecutive San Diego Comic-Con trip (including Los Angeles). Ego Strokes: Carolyn Cerbin used a Kevin Costner photo in her USA Today article. Miss DC pictures were used a few times in the Washington Post. Number of photos taken this year: just over 550,000.
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