BGuthrie Photos: DC -- Natl Museum of American History -- Exhibit: America on the Move

DC -- Natl Museum of American History -- Exhibit: America on the Move:

Bruce Guthrie Photos Home Page: [Click here] to go to Bruce Guthrie Photos home page.

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Copyrights: All pictures were taken by amateur photographer Bruce Guthrie (me!) who retains copyright on them. Free for non-commercial use with attribution. See the [Creative Commons] definition of what this means. "Photos (c) Bruce Guthrie" is fine for attribution. (Commercial use folks including AI scrapers can of course contact me.) Feel free to use in publications and pages with attribution but you don't have permission to sell the photos themselves. A free copy of any printed publication using any photographs is requested. Descriptive text, if any, is from a mixture of sources, quite frequently from signs at the location or from official web sites; copyrights, if any, are retained by their original owners.

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Specific picture descriptions: Photos above with "i" icons next to the bracketed sequence numbers (e.g. "[1] ") are described as follows:
1. SIAHM1_150723_001.JPG: America on the Move: America on the Move explores the role of transportation in American history. Visit communities wrestling with the changes that new transportation networks brought. See cities change, suburbs expand, and farms and factories become part of regional, national, and international economies. Meet people as they travel for work and pleasure, and as they move to new homes. Come along on a journey through America's past.
2. SIAHM1_150723_007.JPG: America On the Move Made possible by generous support from: * General Motors Corporation * AAA * State Farm Companies Foundation * The History Channel * United States Congress * U.S. Department of Transportation * ExxonMobil * American Public Transportation Association * American Road & Transportation Builders Association * Association of American Railroads * National Asphalt Pavement Association * The UPS Foundation
3. SIAHM1_150723_015.JPG: 1876: Community Dreams: Santa Cruz, California A Railroad Comes to Town By the 1870s, iron rails ran coast-to-coast, connecting more of the interior of the United States than ever before. Towns and cities now could flourish away from the coasts and waterways that had been America's main transportation networks. Food and manufactured goods could be distributed nationally. Railroads created new social, political, and economic ties among people spread across thousands of miles. To many Americans, a railroad connection promised new prosperity and new opportunities. In Santa Cruz, businessmen and politicians fought to bring a railroad to town, dreaming of a boom in industry that would make their city the equal of San Francisco. Many local people invested in the proposed Santa Cruz Railroad, and after years of politicking and financial maneuvers, a 15-mile line was completed in 1876. It connected Santa Cruz to the farming town of Watsonville, which was served by California's principal railroad, the Southern Pacific.
4. SIAHM1_150723_019.JPG: Transportation in America before 1876: In the 19th century, as the United States spread across the continent, transportation systems helped connect the growing nation. First rivers and roads and then canals and railroads moved travelers and agricultural and manufactured goods between farms, towns, and cities. Transportation links helped create a set of distinct local and regional economies. They also contributed to the sectional jealousies and rivalries that set the stage for the Civil War. Not until the end of the century would transportation networks form a national economy.
5. SIAHM1_150723_023.JPG: National Road Milepost: This marker was used on the National Road, West of Frostburg, Maryland. It is believed to have been cast in the foundry of Major James Francis, at Connellsville, Pennsylvania and was probably set up in the late 1830s or 1840s. It remained outside until January 1963.
6. SIAHM1_150723_027.JPG: Roads: In the early 19th century, most roads were dreadful. They served local needs, allowing farmers to get produce to market. Americans who did travel long distances overland to settle the West rode on wagon trails, like the Oregon Trail, rather than well-defined roads. Still, a few major roads served as important transportation links. The National Road, initially funded by the federal government, stretched from Cumberland, Maryland, to Columbus, Ohio, by 1833.
7. SIAHM1_150723_029.JPG: Canals: The Erie Canal, built with state funding, was completed in 1825. Running from the Hudson River to the Great Lakes, it was a major economic artery through New York. Its economic success sparked a wave of canal building. By 1840, the United States had 3,326 miles of canals.
8. SIAHM1_150723_034.JPG: Erie Canal at Buffalo commemorative plate: Ralph Stevenson based the scene featured on this plate on a sketch by Captain Basil Hall and engraved by W. H. Lizars, which was featured in a book Forty Etchings from Sketches Made with the Camera Lucida in North America in 1827-1828.
9. SIAHM1_150723_037.JPG: Erie Canal commemorative plate honoring Governor De Witt: This commemorative plate is part of a set of four plates manufactured in England honoring Governor Clinton. Clinton, who was not Governor of New York when the first ground was turned to begin work on the Erie Canal, was one of its biggest supporters. He believed that the canal would be "a work more stupendous, more magnificent, and more beneficial than has hitherto been achieved by the human race."
10. SIAHM1_150723_042.JPG: Telescopic Surveyor's Spirit Level: "This is one of the earliest wye levels in America. It was made by Benjamin Rittenhouse around 1785 and owned by George Gilpin, who was the chief surveyor for the Potowmack Canal Navigation Company. Although this Canal Company had been organized in 1772, the project was shelved during the Revolution. It resumed in 1785 and construction began the following year. Thomas Ellicott purchased the level at the sale of Gilpin's estate in Alexandria, Virginia, in 1813, and it remained in his family until its donation to the Smithsonian Institution in 1997. The level vial of this instrument is mounted above the telescope. In the form that would become standard in the 19th century, the level hangs below the telescope.
11. SIAHM1_150723_045.JPG: Steamboats: The first commercially successful steamboat was tested on the Hudson River in 1807. Steamboats were soon introduced on most navigable rivers. They allowed commerce and travel both upstream and down, and encouraged trade by lowering costs and saving time. By 1830, steamboats dominated American river transportation.
12. SIAHM1_150723_048.JPG: Hudson River steamboat Rochester: The Rochester was a side-wheel Hudson River steamer built in 1836 for the North River Line, New York to Albany. This scale model was built for the Smithsonian by James W. Jackson and is 1/8 inch to the foot.
13. SIAHM1_150723_050.JPG: Railroads: Steam railroads began to appear in the United States around 1830, and dominated the continental transportation system by the 1850s. By 1860 there were roughly 31,000 miles of track in the country, concentrated in the Northeast but also in the South and Midwest.
14. SIAHM1_150723_052.JPG: A Century of Progress? In 1876, the United States celebrated its centennial. As a result of purchase, diplomacy, and war, the nation spread from coast to coast. Some people were enthusiastic, seeing it as an expression of the young country's "manifest destiny," its inevitable growth. Others -- including many Native Americans and many people living in U.S. territories that used to be part of Mexico -- held differing views. For those enthusiastic about expansion, the completion of a transcontinental railroad link in 1869 was the achievement of the age. The vast reaches of the country were bound together as never before. Americans could imagine themselves marching to the beat of technological progress, free from the constraints of time and distance.
15. SIAHM1_150723_055.JPG: Trains meeting at Promontory Summit, Utah, 1869, on the completion of the first transcontinental railroad: This famous photo was taken moments after the completion of North America's first transcontinental rail line. On May 10, 1869, Leland Stanford, president of the Central Pacific Railroad Company and Thomas Clark Durant, Union Pacific Railroad Company vice president, drove the last spike at Promontory, Utah, linking the eastern railroad system to California. In six years, more than 20,000 workers -- Chinese (absent from this picture), Irish, and others -- had laid down some 1,700 miles of track in the largest American civil-works project to that time.
16. SIAHM1_150723_066.JPG: 1895: Delivering the Goods: Watsonville, California Growing for the Wider Market: Railroads changed agriculture. As railways linked farms to a wider commercial world, farmers began to grow new crops for markets near and far. Vast wheat fields supplied flour for people around the world. Trains carried cattle and hogs to central stockyards and shipped meat by refrigerated railcars to retail markets across the country. City dwellers could buy fruits and vegetables year-round. Farms became commercialized, often specializing in single crops and tied to the ups and downs of a national market. With its rich farmland, Watsonville became a center of produce farming. When the railway opened up new markets, local farmers began to experiment with sugar beets, apples, strawberries, and other cash crops. These new crops were highly labor-intensive, needing a vast army of workers to plant, cultivate, harvest, and pack them. Watsonville growers looked for low-cost and temporary field hands. They hired Chinese, Japanese, Filipino, Mexican workers to perform the backbreaking work.
17. SIAHM1_150723_074.JPG: Working the Fields: Specialty crops require a lot of labor. California growers hired large numbers of ethnic laborers to plant, cultivate, pick, and pack their crops. Watsonville farmers employed Chinese men to work the land until Congress passed the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), which stopped these laborers from immigrating. Growers then brought in Japanese workers. By 1900 Watsonville counted 400 Japanese among its few thousand residents. In the 1920s, when Japanese immigration was restricted, Watsonville agriculturalists became more dependent on Filipino and Mexican workers. With each new round of hiring, growers helped change the ethnic composition of central California.
18. SIAHM1_150723_081.JPG: Chinese workers in the field: After the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882, Chinese immigration slowed to a trickle. By the 1890s, California's overwhelmingly male Chinese population was aging and declining in numbers. Growers began to look for other sources of cheap labor.
19. SIAHM1_150723_086.JPG: Izumizaki family in strawberry field with orchard, Pajaro Valley, California: Young male Japanese immigrants replaced older Chinese laborers in the orchards and fields. Although Japanese men began their American lives as hired laborers, some eventually became small farmers. Many formed families, since a loophole in immigration law allowed Japanese women to enter the country to join their husbands. But in 1924 the National Origins Act barred all Japanese immigration, cutting off this source of farm labor.
20. SIAHM1_150723_092.JPG: Filipino farm workers, Pajaro Valley, near Watsonville, September 1939: After the United States restricted Japanese immigration, California agriculturists hired men from the US colony of the Philippines to help fill their labor needs. By the late 1920s, Filipinos were the Pajaro Valley's dominant labor group. In 1934, this migrant group was also legally restricted from entering the country, like the Chinese and Japanese before them.
21. SIAHM1_150723_099.JPG: Mexican workers, Pajaro Valley, California, 1960s: Mexican farm laborers had always worked in Watsonville's fields, but they became an increasingly important source of labor after the 1920s. In 1942, the federally sponsored Bracero program encouraged Mexican nationals to work in the United States on a temporary basis. By the time the program ended in 1964, Mexicans had become the dominant source of farm labor in the Watsonville region.
22. SIAHM1_150723_104.JPG: What Happened Next? What Happened to Farm Work? Today -- just as in 1895 -- Watsonville, California, is a center of agricultural production and heavily dependent on low-paid immigrant workers. But Watsonville now grows different crops and different people work the fields. Agriculture remains a mainstay of California's economy and continues to be highly commercialized. The orchards and sugar beet fields of the late 19th century gave way in the 20th century to truck crops such as lettuce and broccoli. After World War II, Watsonville became a frozen-food processing center, although in recent years these factories have moved overseas. Watsonville's population has also changed. Although Watsonville is home to Anglo, Japanese, Chinese, and Filipino families, 70 percent of the population is now Latino and one-third of its residents are immigrants. Latinos began coming to Watsonville in the 1920s. During World War II, the Bracero program, which allowed Mexicans to enter the country on short-term labor contracts, helped expand the population. Since 1965, when immigration laws were changed, Watsonville's Latino population has continued to grow. Heavily involved in farm labor -- doing over 90 percent of the work in 2000 -- Latinos in Watsonville today provide most of the region's low-cost laborers.
23. SIAHM1_150723_109.JPG: Santa Cruz, California, 1876 Steam locomotive Jupiter, 1876: Made in Philadelphia in 1876, Jupiter was the Santa Cruz Railroad's third locomotive. Built for narrow-gauge track (36 inches between rails), Jupiter became obsolete in 1883 when the line switched to standard gauge (56 � inches). Jupiter was sold to a company in Guatemala, where it hauled bananas for more than 60 years. In 1976, it came to the Smithsonian as a part of the United States bicentennial exhibition.
24. SIAHM1_150723_112.JPG: Politics and Promotion: As early as 1867, businessmen began planning a network of rail lines in the Monterey Bay area. Several companies formed to build lines up the Pacific coast to San Francisco. In 1870, Santa Cruz County asked the state legislature for financial aid for a railroad, but was turned down. Undaunted, entrepreneur Frederick A. Hihn sold stock and bonds to finance a railroad between Santa Cruz and Watsonville. Despite financial irregularities and some local opposition, construction finally began in December 1873.
25. SIAHM1_150723_115.JPG: Frederick A. Hihn: Frederick Hihn emigrated to California from Germany in 1849. After starting several businesses in San Francisco and Sacramento, he moved to Santa Cruz in 1851. Hihn had interests in lumber, mining, railroads, and land. As a state assemblyman, he promoted the Santa Cruz Railroad.
26. SIAHM1_150723_118.JPG: Watsonville's Opposition: Not everyone in Santa Cruz County supported the railroad. Residents of Watsonville, especially local newspaper editor C.O. Cummings, questioned Hihn's business practices and fought taxpayer subsidies for the railroad. Already connected to the rest of the country through the Southern Pacific, the town of Watsonville voted overwhelmingly against subsidizing the Santa Cruz Railroad. "If a railroad is all that is required to make Santa Cruz prosperous, we earnestly hope that they may get it. But we do object to speculators bolstering up chimerical schemes for their own benefit." -- C.O. Cummings, editorial, Watsonville Pajaronian, April 11, 1872 "...the Southern Pacific Railroad Co. not complying with their promises to build a wide gauge railroad, from Santa Cruz to Watsonville, we are forced to conclude that if we want a railroad we must build it ourselves." -- Frederick A. Hihn, 1872
27. SIAHM1_150723_121.JPG: Changes the Railroad Brought: By 1893, five transcontinental rail lines and a web of other railroads linked the American West to the rest of the country. By that time, the U.S. economy had become truly national: almost any town could receive food and goods from any section of the country within a week or two. Factories could ship their products anywhere. Marketing became a nationwide enterprise. National politics changed as well, as some local differences blurred in the face of broader concerns. Changes to California: In the early 1880s, the Southern Pacific Railroad bought up and consolidated rail lines throughout California. The "SP" then monopolized access into California from the east and north and dominated access into the southern part of the state. The company became the largest landowner in California. As a result, the railroad controlled the shipping costs of every farmer and business owner. It influenced land prices and wielded a heavy hand in state politics.
28. SIAHM1_150723_123.JPG: Santa Cruz advertisement, Southern Pacific Railroad, 1885: Santa Cruz became a popular weekend destination for summer tourists. The term "broad gauge" in the poster advertises that passengers from San Francisco could reach Santa Cruz or Monterey without having to change to narrow-gauge trains. The Octopus, by Frank Norris, 1901: Frank Norris's novel vividly described the abuses of large railroads in setting high shipping prices and controlling land ownership. In the early 1900s, the novels and expos�s of Norris, Upton Sinclair, Lincoln Steffens, and Ida Tarbell -- writers called muckrakers -- revealed the dark side of American industry and finance.
29. SIAHM1_150723_125.JPG: Santa Cruz, California, 1876: Changes to Santa Cruz: The dream of equaling San Francisco never came true, but the railroad brought outside markets closer, speeded the mail, and accelerated tourism. When the Santa Cruz Railroad went bankrupt in 1881, the Southern Pacific snapped it up and converted the line to standard gauge. Travelers no longer had to change trains at Watsonville, and by 1885 Santa Cruz's tourism and lumber and lime industries surged, while Watsonville enjoyed a boom in agriculture. Santa Cruz Depot, 1890s: Built in 1893, the Santa Cruz Union Depot bustled with activity no summer weekends in the 1890s. The Southern Pacific standard-gauge line reached Santa Cruz via Watsonville, and a narrow-gauge line connected Santa Cruz with San Francisco through the redwood groves of the Santa Cruz Mountains.
30. SIAHM1_150723_128.JPG: Santa Cruz Depot, 1890s: Built in 1893, the Santa Cruz Union Depot bustled with activity no summer weekends in the 1890s. The Southern Pacific standard-gauge line reached Santa Cruz via Watsonville, and a narrow-gauge line connected Santa Cruz with San Francisco through the redwood groves of the Santa Cruz Mountains.
31. SIAHM1_150723_131.JPG: Watsonville, California, 1895 Growing Locally, Selling Nationally: With new national markets beckoning, Watsonville farmers tried out new cash crops. In the 1870s and 1880s, they experimented with strawberries, hops, loganberries, apples, and other fruits and vegetables. Watsonville sent thousands of tons of strawberries to San Francisco, and sold its apples nationally and internationally. In the 1890s, Pajaro Valley farmers planted even more orchards, growing strawberries and other cash crops between the rows of trees to bring in money while the orchards matured. Western Beet Sugar Company factory, Watsonville, California, 1890s: Beginning in 1888, Watsonville farmers grew sugar beets for a local factory, which was the largest beet processing plant in the country. By 1895, they grew beets on 7,244 acres of land. This crop helped protect Watsonville from the depressions of the 1890s and firmly tied local residents into commercialized farming. But in 1898, because beet sugar production shifted to the Salinas Valley, the factory moved too. The Watsonville factory closed after only 10 years of operation.
32. SIAHM1_150723_134.JPG: As more fresh and canned produce was shipped around the country, growers began to label their wares. These labels helped the shippers keep track of which box of fruit belonged to which company. They also helped create brand recognition. Manzanita asparagus can label: This 1910s Manzanita Brand green asparagus can label was produced for the California Fruit Canners Association of San Francisco California. As canning techniques improved, more fruits and vegetables were commercial canned. Blue Flag apple crate label: This Blue Flag brand label's patriotic color scheme, and the reference to the Standard Apple Act of 1917, suggests that it was probably made during or immediately after World War I.
33. SIAHM1_150723_136.JPG: Watsonville, California, freight yards, 1890s: This photo shows the railroad's importance to agriculture and commerce in the region. Although Watsonville had only a few thousand residents, it had a busy railroad station because of its commercialized agriculture.
34. SIAHM1_150723_139.JPG: Growing for a Wider Market: Railroad companies laid more than 100,000 miles of new track between 1870 and 1890. Along with the development of refrigerated cars, this new network helped create a growing market for fruit and other produce. By the 1880s, Armour, Swift, and other meatpacking companies shipped refrigerated beef around the country. Fruits and vegetables became more widely available. Strawberries from Tennessee, Georgia peaches, Florida oranges, and a cornucopia of produce from California poured into midwestern and eastern cities, feeding America's expanding urban populations.
35. SIAHM1_150723_154.JPG: Refrigerator car model, 1905: Fresh vegetables, fruit, and meat had to be kept cool to be shipped long distances. Refrigerator cars began running in the late 1860s, using blocks of ice in special bunkers and air circulation to preserve their perishable cargoes. By the 1880s in California, ice was cut in winter from lakes in the Sierra Mountains and transported by rail to icehouses located in every farming region -- including Watsonville -- that shipped vegetables or orchard crops. Refrigerator cars received fresh ice at such houses, which stored their ice supplies in layers of straw to last into summer. This model shows a car built in 1905 for Merchants Despatch Transportation, an eastern firm that operated several thousand refrigerator cars nationwide.
36. SIAHM1_150723_159.JPG: Railroad Construction: Funding was tight. Hihn decided to build the Santa Cruz Railroad as a cheaper narrow-gauge line. Chinese workers, encamped in a cluster of tents about a mile east of Santa Cruz, provided most of the labor. They graded rights-of-way, built bridges, laid wooden ties, and spiked rails into place. Railroad building, Loma Prieta Lumber Company, California, about 1885: These Chinese workers are constructing a narrow-gauge line. Skilled rail workers labored 10 hours a day, six days a week, and were paid a dollar a day. "...next week passenger trains will commence daily trips between Santa Cruz and Watsonville." -- Santa Cruz Sentinel, May 6, 1876, "At Last" "At last our enterprising young city is in full connection with the rest of mankind. At last she is free from the rule of the sleepy stage coach." -- Santa Cruz Sentinel, May 13, 1876, "Santa Cruz Advances"
37. SIAHM1_150723_161.JPG: Railroad building, Loma Prieta Lumber Company, California, about 1885: These Chinese workers are constructing a narrow-gauge line. Skilled rail workers labored 10 hours a day, six days a week, and were paid a dollar a day.
38. SIAHM1_150723_179.JPG: The New Market System: The national rail system enabled businessmen to devise new distribution systems. Meat came from the stockyards (by refrigerated railroad car) to regional distributors for delivery to local butchers. Growers sent fruits and vegetables to wholesalers for resale to retailers. National brands came into being to take advantage of national advertising and distribution networks. Wholesale businesses near Center Market on Louisiana Avenue at 9th Street, N.W., Washington, D.C., about 1900
39. SIAHM1_150723_182.JPG: Business card for William Dix, dairyman: Dix operated a stall at Center Market and the O Street Market. Business card for Andrew Wonder, fishmonger: Andrew Wonder operated a stall at Center Market, the K Street Market and Riggs market.
40. SIAHM1_150723_183.JPG: Neighborhood Groceries: Independent grocers established stores near their customers' homes. Although there were tensions between public market officials and neighborhood shopkeepers, the businesses complemented each other. People could shop at the corner store when the markets were closed, and shopkeepers often tailored their stock to the needs, economic level, and ethnic character of a neighborhood. Morris Miller's grocery, 234 Upshur Street, N.W., Washington, D.C.
41. SIAHM1_150723_189.JPG: City Streetscapes: Pedestrians, carriages, farmers' wagons, express wagons, delivery wagons, bicyclists, streetcars, and even the occasional automobile shared Washington's streets in 1900. Washington had always been known for its wide streets, and beginning in the 1870s the District government invested in better street surfaces. In the downtown area, gravel was eventually replaced with stone blocks or asphalt. Pennsylvania Avenue between 7th and 8th Streets, N.W., near Center Market, Washington, D.C.: Washington's broad streets allowed the addition of electric streetcars more easily than did the narrower streets of many cities.
42. SIAHM1_150723_190.JPG: Pennsylvania Avenue between 7th and 8th Streets, N.W., near Center Market, Washington, D.C.: Washington's broad streets allowed the addition of electric streetcars more easily than did the narrower streets of many cities.
43. SIAHM1_150723_193.JPG: Street vendor on Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W., near Center Market, Washington, D.C.: Street vendors sold foods and services to residents. This practice sometimes put vendors at odds with neighborhood shopkeepers.
44. SIAHM1_150723_195.JPG: Getting Around: In Washington, as in most cities in 1900, people usually walked or took public transportation. Some used bicycles. Wealthier residents owned their own carriages and usually stored carriages and stabled horses at commercial liveries. Improved streets allowed more traffic, but vehicles were still slow enough that pedestrians could walk in and cross the street at any point. Over the next 20 years this would change, as growing numbers of autos took over city streets.
45. SIAHM1_150723_199.JPG: Overman Wheel Co. bicycle advertisement, 1896: The 1890s saw a great boom in bicycling. As the first personal mechanical mode of transportation, the bicycle often gave both men and women a thrilling sense of freedom.
46. SIAHM1_150723_202.JPG: Alice Maury Parmelee and her driver in her hansom cab, about 1920: Horse-drawn carriages were common on Washington streets in 1900. By the time this photo was taken in the 1920s, automobiles had changed the city streetscape, and the carriage was becoming a rarity.
47. SIAHM1_150723_205.JPG: West Virginia Senator and Mrs. Nathan B. Scott with their automobile in front of the U.S. Capitol, about 1905: Around 1900, trucks and automobiles began to appear on city streets. Only the wealthy owned cars, which were used mostly for recreation and short trips.
48. SIAHM1_150723_208.JPG: Knife grinder's cart, early 20th century: Washington's streets were alive with vendors and tradesmen pushing carts like this one from door to door, plying wares and offering services. Hansom cab, about 1900: Most hansom cabs were public vehicles, available for hire, but this one was owned by a Washington, D.C., family. They used it into the 1920s.
49. SIAHM1_150723_211.JPG: Man's Cleveland safety bicycle, 1899: Woman's Overman Victoria safety bicycle, 1889: Cycling quickly became a popular way to get around the city, and on weekends many bike enthusiasts went for rides in the country. In the 1890s, bicyclists played a major role in lobbying for road improvements.
50. SIAHM1_150723_213.JPG: 1900: A Streetcar City: Washington, D.C. The Trolley and Daily Life: American cities in the 19th century were walking cities -- most residents worked and shopped close to where they lived. But as electric streetcar (trolley) systems were built in the 1880s, 1890s, and early 1900s, cities expanded. Many white city dwellers moved to new trolley suburbs; streetcars made it easy to travel greater distances to work, shop, and socialize in town. City streets and the patterns of people's daily lives changed. In Washington, streetcars turned outlying areas into new neighborhoods. Real estate developers often built streetcar lines to promote new suburban communities. Their success in selling the suburbs to middle-class workers changed neighborhood life and the rhythms of the city. The trolley also connected Washingtonians to the city's largest public market. There, shoppers could find produce and meat from regional farms, fruits and vegetables from across the country, as well as a few products -- such as bananas -- from overseas.
51. SIAHM1_150723_229.JPG: Washington, D.C., 1900 Going Marketing: Center Market opened early in the morning and usually closed by mid-afternoon, except on Saturday, when it was open all day. Different classes of people visited the market from all parts of the city. The best (and most expensive) produce and meats sold early. As the day went on, prices and quality lessened. Center Market, Washington, D.C., about 1910: Although Center Market was built in 1871, the square operated as a marketplace from 1801 until 1931, when the National Archives building was erected in its place.
52. SIAHM1_150723_232.JPG: Center Market, Washington, D.C., about 1910: Although Center Market was built in 1871, the square operated as a marketplace from 1801 until 1931, when the National Archives building was erected in its place.
53. SIAHM1_150723_236.JPG: Center Market, B Street, N.W. (now Constitution Avenue, N.W.), side: Farmers from outlying parts of the District and from nearby Maryland and Virginia rented Center Market's cheaper outside stalls and sold their produce to city residents.
54. SIAHM1_150723_238.JPG: Center Market interior, Washington, D.C.: The approximately 700 dealers who rented space on the ground floor of the Center Market sold both local produce and foods from around the region, the nation, and the world. With the growth of railroads and commercial farming, more and more people were able to buy oranges, bananas, and other fruits and vegetables that were previously unavailable or too expensive.
55. SIAHM1_150723_242.JPG: Center Market: Like many big cities, Washington, D.C., had several large markets where residents shopped daily for foodstuffs. Center Market, Washington's largest, was built in 1871. Located at 7th Street and Pennsylvania Avenue, N.W., (where the National Archives stands today), the market covered two city blocks in the heart of Washington's business district.
56. SIAHM1_150723_244.JPG: "City of Washington. Bird's-eye View from the Potomac -- Looking North," by Currier & Ives, 1892
57. SIAHM1_150723_252.JPG: Washington, D.C., 1900 Delivery wagon, about 1900: Many city businesses made use of delivery wagons like this one, which was built in Maryland. In 1900, over three million horses worked in American cities. They produced some 30,000 tons of manure every day. This was a major urban concern, used by promoters of motorized vehicles to sell the idea of trucks and automobiles to the public.
58. SIAHM1_150723_255.JPG: Shoppers buying from farm wagons on B Street, Washington, D.C.
59. SIAHM1_150723_258.JPG: The Brookeville Turnpike, connecting 7th Street in Washington, D.C., to outlying communities in Maryland.
60. SIAHM1_150723_263.JPG: Farm to Market: About 300 local farmers rented stalls outside Washington's Center Market. Even after improvements in regional and national transportation systems, farmers who drove their wagons into the city to sell their produce remained a critical part of the District's economy.
61. SIAHM1_150723_277.JPG: Fares, Please! Washington, one of many American cities that built new electric streetcar systems, began converting from horse and cable cars in 1888. Trolley lines created the modern suburb and the commuter and enabled people to live farther from their jobs in the commercial center of the city. In Washington, the streetcars were privately owned and run. Real estate developers built many lines to promote new neighborhoods. Washington's streetcar companies consolidated into two systems in 1902.
62. SIAHM1_150723_280.JPG: Eckington & Soldiers' Home streetcar line: Washington's first electric streetcar line was the Eckington & Soldiers' Home Railway, chartered in 1888. In this photograph documenting its first day, people are gathered on New York Avenue, near the end of the line at Mount Vernon Square.
63. SIAHM1_150723_289.JPG: Sheetmusic, 1912, "The Trolley Car Swing Song": Streetcars were heavily used, and passengers often found them crowded and uncomfortable. This sheet music-one of the many songs about streetcars that entered the popular culture of the time-shows the cramped conditions aboard a trolley. "And when the car goes round a curve You begin to swerve, Grab for a strap, fall in some woman's lap, Clang, clang, watch your step. That's the trolley car swing!"
64. SIAHM1_150723_293.JPG: Passengers waiting for streetcars: Passengers wait to board streetcars at 11th and F Streets, N.W., Washington, ca. 1915
65. SIAHM1_150723_297.JPG: Capital Traction Company motorman and conductor: In Washington, two men operated a streetcar. In 1900, the nation's streetcar men worked an average of twelve and a half hours a day.
66. SIAHM1_150723_302.JPG: "Jim Crow": Public transit was a battlefield in race relations, especially in southern cities where "Jim Crow" laws restricted African Americans' access to public transportation. In 1896, Homer Plessy sued to overturn a law that barred him from riding in a "whites only" railroad car. The Supreme Court upheld Louisiana's "separate but equal" accommodations, and other southern cities passed laws segregating transportation systems. While the District did not pass a streetcar Jim Crow law, unwritten social customs segregated blacks and whites on the streetcars and in other public places.
67. SIAHM1_150723_303.JPG: Washington, D.C., 1900 Electric streetcar, 1898: This Capital Traction Company streetcar ran along 7th Street from the wharves at the Potomac River to Boundary Street (now known as Florida Avenue), which at the time was the edge of the City of Washington. Washington banned overhead wires, so streetcars used an underground electrical conduit within the city and an aboveground wire outside city limits.
68. SIAHM1_150723_307.JPG: What Happened Next: What Happened to Streetcars? In the early 1900's, streetcars and electric interurban systems helped fill the nation's transportation needs. By 1917, there were 45,000 miles of transit track in the country, and millions of riders. But over the next few decades, the limitations of streetcar systems, government and corporate policies and actions, consumer choice, and the development of alternatives -- especially the bus and the car -- helped make trolleys obsolete. Buses began replacing trolleys in the 1910's. Many commuters considered buses a modern, comfortable, even luxurious replacement for the rickety, uncomfortable trolleys. Buses made business sense for transit companies; they were more flexible and cheaper to run than streetcars. In a few cities, auto and auto-supply companies, including General Motors, Firestore Tire and Rubber Company, and Standard Oil of California, bought an interest in transit companies and encouraged the conversion from streetcar to bus. But many cities made the choice to switch without this influence, and by 1937, 50 percent of U.S. cities that had public transit were served by buses alone. Most important, Americans chose another alternative -- the automobile. The car became the commuter option of choice for those who could afford it, and more people could do so. In Washington, D.C., the last streetcar ran in 1962. In 2000, a public-transit authority runs an expansive bus service and operates a subway system. But as in most cities, the majority of D.C.-area residents prefer to drive alone in their cars from their homes to their workplaces.
69. SIAHM1_150723_310.JPG: Capital Transit Company bus and streetcar, Washington, D.C., 1947
70. SIAHM1_150723_312.JPG: Push lawn mower, 1927: Ownership of a piece of land with a little house came with challenges and responsibilities -- and new tools. Homeowners had to keep up their property.
71. SIAHM1_150723_316.JPG: Bungalow dollhouse, about 1920
72. SIAHM1_150723_318.JPG: Growth of the Capital's Suburbs: In the 19th century, some Americans began to live in a new kind of community, suburbs, where they enjoyed pastoral surroundings but could commute to the city for jobs and shopping. Suburbs were made possible by railroads, horsecars, cable cars, and electric streetcars. Some suburbanites left the city to get away from poor immigrants and migrants. Others believed that a quiet, less-congested area was better for health and family. In 19th-century cities, people of different races and incomes lived in close proximity. With the rise of suburbs, communities became more sharply divided by race, wealth, and ethnicity. Early Washington Suburbs: Suburban development began slowly in the 1850s around the City of Washington. Land speculators established suburban sites like Uniontown (later known as Anacostia), Mount Pleasant, Le Droit Park, and Takoma Park near roads, street rail lines, and railroads that led into the city.
73. SIAHM1_150723_321.JPG: Street scene created to promote Le Droit Park, 1877: In 1873, speculators turned farmland into Le Droit Park, an exclusive, fenced-in subdivision located near a horse-drawn streetcar line that carried residents downtown
74. SIAHM1_150723_323.JPG: Mathew Brady photograph of Navy Yard Bridge, 1862: Uniontown was laid out across the Anacostia River from Washington in 1854. The developer hoped to attract Navy Yard employees who could walk across this bridge to work.
75. SIAHM1_150723_327.JPG: A passenger train approaches the B&O station at Takoma Park: In 1883, Takoma Park, a "railroad suburb," attracted government workers. Sales literature advertised that living expenses would be relatively cheap compared to the city.
76. SIAHM1_150723_331.JPG: Cartoon from the Evening Star newspaper, 1880s: Moving to the suburbs changed people's lifestyles. Homeowners now had the responsibility of maintaining the home and a yard. And women were more isolated from the once easy walk to the market, shops, and friends.
77. SIAHM1_150723_342.JPG: Grandfather and grandson raise a fence in the mostly undeveloped suburb of North Columbia Heights, about 1904: Moving to the suburbs changed people's lifestyles. Homeowners now had the responsibility of maintaining the home and a yard. And women were more isolated from the once easy walk to the market, shops, and friends.
78. SIAHM1_150723_349.JPG: Electric Streetcar Suburb: Chevy Chase, 1890s: Sensing profit in the public's need for transit and housing, businessmen established streetcar lines to open up new areas for development. The Chevy Chase Land Company developed more than 1,700 acres that straddled the Maryland-District line. The Rock Creek Railway connected Chevy Chase to the city. Chevy Chase grew slowly until World War I, when the automobile made suburban living more and more convenient.
79. SIAHM1_150723_351.JPG: Chevy Chase promotional plat map, Thos. J. Fisher & Co., 1892
80. SIAHM1_150723_357.JPG: Trolley passing a real-estate billboard on a developing section of Connecticut Avenue, about 1903: To get potential buyers to Chevy Chase, the development company extended Connecticut Avenue and built bridges, an electric streetcar line, and an amusement park. In 1900, a streetcar ride from Chevy Chase to downtown Washington took 35 minutes.
81. SIAHM1_150723_360.JPG: Electric streetcar model, 1898
82. SIAHM1_150723_362.JPG: Wall telephone, about 1900
83. SIAHM1_150723_368.JPG: Cultural Connections: In the 1920s many African American artists and performers were drawn to New York to take part in Harlem's dynamic jazz and blues music scene. One such migrant was Georgia native Fletcher Henderson, who led the most successful African American jazz band in the decade. Other musical talents who made New York home in the twenties were Coleman Hawkins (from Kansas City); "Duke" Ellington (Washington, DC); "King" Oliver, "Jelly Roll" Morton, Louis Armstrong (New Orleans); and Bessie Smith (Chattanooga). Jazz became a powerful expression of New York's cultural life and was exported through recordings, radio broadcasts, and live performances abroad.
84. SIAHM1_150723_371.JPG: Model of the dirigible Graf Zeppelin: Air travel, still highly experimental, captured America's imagination during the 1920s. It promised to speed communication and commerce among peoples and nations. At a time when ocean liners symbolized modernity, wealth, and national pride, it was exciting to think that giant and graceful airships might one day replace their ocean rivals. The German dirigible Graf Zeppelin inaugurated the first commercial passenger service across the Atlantic by air in October 1928. It carried 20 passengers at a time, with a crew of 43.
85. SIAHM1_150723_378.JPG: Singer Straight Stitch Sewing Machine: This Singer sewing machine was made for industrial use. In the early 20th century, New York was the country's center of garment manufacturing and women and men in factories and sweatshops produced ready to wear clothing. Immigrants provided much of the labor that made the nation's suits, coats, and dresses.
86. SIAHM1_150723_382.JPG: New York Connected Immigrant City: Although the United States began to restrict immigration in 1924, 1920s New York was still a city with a large immigrant population. Foreign-born residents played a crucial part in the city's economic, social, and cultural life. At a time when America's ready-made clothing industry was centered in New York, immigrants provided much of the labor that made the nation's suits, coats, and dresses. Workers at the Kops Bros. clothing factory, New York City, 1928
87. SIAHM1_150723_389.JPG: Workers at the Kops Bros. clothing factory, New York City, 1928
88. SIAHM1_150723_394.JPG: New York Connected New York in the 1920s had nearly 6 million residents and was a center of manufacturing, commerce, and culture. Immigrants entering through the port and migrants coming by road and rail fed the city's thriving economy. In 1923, New York produced 1/12th of all manufacturing in the nation. As part of the great migration from the south to northern cities, some 200,000 African Americans moved to New York between 1917 and 1925. In addition to the lure of jobs, many were drawn to the cultural life of Harlem, on the city's East Side.
89. SIAHM1_150723_397.JPG: Transatlantic Travel: Almost everyone who crossed the Atlantic Ocean in the 1920s did so by steamship. Businessmen meeting overseas clients, entertainers on tour, and travelers making leisure trips booked passage on ocean liners of all sizes. They sailed alongside vast numbers of emigrants coming to the United States and immigrants returning abroad. The Leviathan and its crew of 1,100 ferried as many as 3,400 passengers to or from New York City each week. German-built in 1914 but used as an American troopship during World War I, the Leviathan was the largest American merchant ship of its day.
90. SIAHM1_150723_401.JPG: Cultural Connections: In the 1920s many African American artists and performers were drawn to New York to take part in Harlem's dynamic jazz and blues music scene. One such migrant was Georgia native Fletcher Henderson, who led the most successful African American jazz band in the decade. Other musical talents who made New York home in the twenties were Coleman Hawkins (from Kansas City); "Duke" Ellington (Washington, DC); "King" Oliver, "Jelly Roll" Morton, Louis Armstrong (New Orleans); and Bessie Smith (Chattanooga). Jazz became a powerful expression of New York's cultural life and was exported through recordings, radio broadcasts, and live performances abroad. The Leviathan in New York, 1923
91. SIAHM1_150723_403.JPG: "Jazz Band," from Le Tumulte Noir by Paul Colin, 1929
92. SIAHM1_150723_407.JPG: Intercoastal passenger liner California, 1928
93. SIAHM1_150723_410.JPG: 1920s: The Connected City: New York, New York Water, Water Everywhere: America's earliest cities grew up next to the rivers and oceans that connected them to each other and to world trade routes. Small colonial outposts expanded into major centers of population, commerce, manufacturing, and culture based on their ties to this natural transportation network. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, railroads, canals, and road systems brought prosperity to landlocked cities. Still, the country's largest cities remained those along the water. New York City in the 1920s demonstrated the nation's continued reliance on maritime commerce. Bordering one of the finest natural harbors in the world, the city handled almost half of America's international trade. People, agricultural products, raw materials, and manufactured goods of all kinds came and went through its giant waterfront railroad terminals, conveyed in thousands of ships dispatched by more than 200 shipping companies. The sea-lanes of New York served the needs of the city and those of the nation as well.
94. SIAHM1_150723_423.JPG: 1903: Crossing the Country: Somewhere in Wyoming Come Along on the First Cross-Country Road Trip: The idea of driving across the country captured the imagination of millions of Americans. Even before roads stretched across the nation, well-publicized cross-country automobile trips advertised car manufacturers, promoted political causes, and proved that the automobile could be more than an expensive toy. Long-distance road trips and other publicity stunts helped establish the automobile in Americans' consciousness long before cars became commonplace. In 1903, H. Nelson Jackson, Sewall Crocker, and their dog Bud made the first successful transcontinental automobile trip. The journey was arduous and slow, but their trip made headlines wherever they went. They helped prove that long-distance road travel was a real -- if expensive and difficult -- possibility.
95. SIAHM1_150723_439.JPG: Winton touring car "Vermont," 1903: In 1903, H. Nelson Jackson and Sewall K. Crocker completed the first motor trip across the United States in this car, which Jackson named for his home state. The men often used a block and tackle to pull the car out of mudholes. When the Winton needed repairs, they telegraphed the factory for parts and awaited delivery by railroad.
96. SIAHM1_150723_442.JPG: H. Nelson Jackson and Sewall Crocker in a California town: Jackson and Crocker did experience some good roads on their trip, at the start of their journey in California and in the East.
97. SIAHM1_150723_449.JPG: Bud the bulldog's goggles: Churning dust irritated Bud's eyes, and Jackson purchased this pair of goggles for him.
98. SIAHM1_150723_452.JPG: Cover of The Auto Era, featuring Bud the dog: The Winton Motor Carriage Company published details about the Jackson-Crocker cross-country trip and emphasized the car's ruggedness and reliability. Bud, a bulldog, accompanied the drivers, and was featured in many news photos.
99. SIAHM1_150723_456.JPG: First to Drive across the Continent Driving an automobile from coast to coast in 1903 was a difficult and daring achievement. H. Nelson Jackson, a physician and businessman from Burlington, Vermont, captured the nation's attention when he and Sewall K. Crocker, a mechanic, drove from California to New York. Despite mud, washouts, breakdowns, and a lack of roads and bridges in the West, they finished their trip in 63 days. Two other motoring parties -- each anxious to claim the title of first to drive across country -- departed while Jackson and Crocker were en route, but could not overtake them.
100. SIAHM1_150723_459.JPG: H. Nelson Jackson at the wheel of his Winton: There were few roads and guideposts in the West in 1903.
101. SIAHM1_150723_463.JPG: The trip began after a discussion in a San Francisco men's club as to the feasibility of a transcontinental auto crossing. Jackson decided to give it a try. He purchased a 1903 Winton touring car, named it "Vermont," and headed east. Jackson and Crocker followed trails, rivers, mountain passes, alkali flats, and the Union Pacific Railroad across the West. In Idaho, Jackson acquired Bud, and the bulldog accompanied the pioneering motorists to the East Coast Bud, a bulldog, accompanied the drivers, and was featured in many news photos. After 63 days on the road, the expedition reached New York. Jackson had spent $8,000 on the trip, including hotel rooms, gasoline, tires, parts, supplies, food, and the cost of the Winton.
102. SIAHM1_150723_485.JPG: 1927: Lives on the Railroad: Salisbury. North Carolina Riding and Working on the Railroad: In the 1920s, railroads were a central part of American life. Railroad lines crisscrossed the country. They carried people, manufactured goods, food, the daily mail, and express packages. Railroads made long-distance travel possible, but the opportunities for travel were not equally shared. In the South, African Americans were segregated into "Jim Crow" cars. Salisbury, North Carolina, was linked to the nationwide system by the Southern Railway. Its main route ran between Washington, D.C., and New Orleans, Louisiana, by way of Salisbury. The depot and rail freight sheds made the town a part of the country's rail network. The railroad also provided job opportunities in the community: in nearby Spencer, the vast locomotive repair shops employed 2,500 skilled workers.
103. SIAHM1_150723_487.JPG: The [Salisbury] Depot In the 1920s, a town's railway station was a hub of activity. The depot was a city's principal gateway, and station architecture often reflected that importance. In 1906, the Southern Railway hired noted architect Frank Milburn to design an elegant mission-style building in Salisbury. The station reflected and reinforced prevailing social attitudes, as in the separate White and Colored entrances into the General Waiting Room. There was separation of the sexes and African Americans were not accorded the civility given to whites. The white women's rest room was called a Ladies Parlor and there was a Smoking Room for white men. In contrast, black women weren't considered "ladies:" their segregated restroom and toilet facilities were simply labeled Colored Women. Black men did not have access to a smoking room, and had to go outside the building to get the Colored Men's Toilet.
104. SIAHM1_150723_490.JPG: Salisbury, North Carolina, 1927 Southern Railway station at Salisbury, North Carolina, 1920s: The Salisbury station, seen from trackside and from the street. Large canopies sheltered travelers from rain and the sun. The building also had offices for the stationmaster, the telegrapher, and other staff.considered "ladies:" their segregated restroom and toilet facilities were simply labeled Colored Women. Black men did not have access to a smoking room, and had to go outside the building to get the Colored Men's Toilet.
105. SIAHM1_150723_499.JPG: A Way of Travel From the 1830s through the 1950s, people traveled in trains pulled by steam locomotives. Cars in these trains were almost always arranged in a particular order -- an order that reflected social hierarchy. Coal-burning steam engines spewed smoke and cinders into the air, so the most privileged passengers sat as far away from the locomotive as possible. The first passenger cars -- the coaches -- were separated from the locomotive by the mail and baggage cars. In the South in the first half of the 20th century, the first coaches were "Jim Crow cars," designated for black riders only. Passenger coaches for whites then followed. Long-distance trains had a dining car, located between the coaches and any sleeping cars. Overnight trains included sleeping cars -- toward the back because travelers in these higher-priced cars wanted to be far away from the locomotive's smoke. A parlor or observation car usually brought up the rear. Locomotive: A typical steam locomotive had an engine and a tender for carrying fuel and water for the boiler. Two crew members worked in the engine's cab: the engineer ran the locomotive, and the fireman managed the boiler and helped watch for signals. Both jobs were highly skilled.
106. SIAHM1_150723_504.JPG: Mail / Baggage Car: This car served two functions, baggage and mail carrying. Only U.S. Postal Department employees handled mail aboard trains. The car includes a Railway Post Office, where mail clerks sorted letters and small packages for delivery to towns along the route. "R.P.O" cars carried daily mail to most small towns in America.
107. SIAHM1_150723_509.JPG: Coach: This was the most common kind of passenger car. American-style coach design placed seats on each side of a center aisle, with no compartments. Coaches for commuter trains were plain, with up to 80 seats. Long-distance coaches were more comfortable. On trains in the South, a separate coach carried African Americans, or a single car was divided into "White" and "Colored" sections.
108. SIAHM1_150723_516.JPG: Dining car: A chef and cooks prepared meals onboard in a fully equipped kitchen. A steward seated passengers and took meal orders. Waiters brought food to the tables. Since space was limited, each meal was often divided into two or more seatings. Prices were high, so many travelers brought their own food and did not eat in the dining car.
109. SIAHM1_150723_525.JPG: Sleeping car: First-class passengers traveled here, in cars operated by the Pullman Company. Seats for day travel converted into beds. Most costly were private compartments. A Pullman porter in each sleeping car brought meals, turned down beds, and attended to the passengers' needs. Pullman maids also provided personal services for patrons. On long trains, a parlor car or observation/lounge car might be the last car
110. SIAHM1_150723_554.JPG: Railroad Conductor The conductor's job involved more than collecting tickets. He was the "captain" of the train. He supervised other train crew, looked out for the safety of everyone aboard, and made sure that every passenger paid the correct fare. The engineer was responsible for signals and speed restrictions en route, but the conductor determined when a train could safely depart a station and was in charge during emergencies. The conductor's role as chief of the train came from maritime tradition. Many conductors on the first American railroads in the 1830s had been steamboat or coastal packet captains.
111. SIAHM1_150723_557.JPG: Southern Railway conductor C. Frank Marshall and engineer David L. Fant compare watches, Greenville, South Carolina, 2:48 p.m., January 4, 1929.
112. SIAHM1_150723_560.JPG: Pullman Porter In the 1920s, the Pullman Company was the largest single employer of African American men. From the 1870s through the 1960s, tens of thousands worked for Pullman as sleeping-car porters. The feeling of sleeping-car luxury came from the porter. He "made down" berths at night and "made up" the berths into seating in the morning, helped with luggage, and answered passengers' calls at any hour. Working 400 hours a month, porters earned better wages than most African Americans, but degrading conditions helped lead to the founding of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters in 1925.
113. SIAHM1_150723_563.JPG: Salisbury, North Carolina, 1927 In the Community: Although they were servants on the job, porters took pride in their professionalism. At home, they were respected members of their communities. Porters traveled extensively and connected their communities to a wider world. From the 1920s through the 1940s, porters helped southern blacks migrate by bringing back information on jobs and housing in the North. Porters were also involved in Civil Rights activity. Pullman porter E. D. Nixon helped plan the Montgomery, Alabama, bus boycott of 1955-56. Union leader A. Philip Randolph pressured President Franklin Roosevelt into issuing Executive Order 8802 in 1941. It barred discrimination in defense industries and created the Fair Employment Practices Committee. Later, Randolph was involved planning the 1963 civil rights march on Washington. A porter assists passengers boarding a train.
114. SIAHM1_150723_579.JPG: An Economy in Motion Carrying Everything Into Town -- and Out Communities in the 1920s relied on trains for transporting goods. Some 75 to 80 percent of all U.S. intercity freight went by rail. In Salisbury, in the Piedmont region of North Carolina, the railroad brought raw materials, consumer goods, and mail and parcels into the town's factories, stores, and homes. Trains also carried the region's agricultural products and manufactured goods out of Salisbury, to the rest of the state and the nation. Salisbury was the commercial center of a large agricultural area dominated by cotton and Rowan County was home to 15 textile mills employing more than 1,700 people. Among the county's other businesses was a headache-powder manufacturer, which distributed its product nationally by rail.
115. SIAHM1_150723_582.JPG: Carrying Everything Into Town -- and Out Communities in the 1920s relied on trains for transporting goods. Some 75 to 80 percent of all U.S. intercity freight went by rail. In Salisbury, in the Piedmont region of North Carolina, the railroad brought raw materials, consumer goods, and mail and parcels into the town's factories, stores, and homes. Trains also carried the region's agricultural products and manufactured goods out of Salisbury, to the rest of the state and the nation. Salisbury was the commercial center of a large agricultural area dominated by cotton and Rowan County was home to 15 textile mills employing more than 1,700 people. Among the county's other businesses was a headache-powder manufacturer, which distributed its product nationally by rail.
116. SIAHM1_150723_584.JPG: The South Connected to the Nation In the 1920s, southern states promised cheap land and labor for new factories. The nationwide rail system gave the South ready access to national markets and tied it into the national economy. Southern Railway ads in national magazines at this time promoted development along the company's rail lines and touted the South's importance in the national economy. The railroad hoped to profit from hauling raw materials into the region, and finished products out. Most "exports" from the South, however, were from mills, farms and forests.
117. SIAHM1_150723_588.JPG: The South Connected to the Nation In the 1920s, southern states promised cheap land and labor for new factories. The nationwide rail system gave the South ready access to national markets and tied it into the national economy. Southern Railway ads in national magazines at this time promoted development along the company's rail lines and touted the South's importance in the national economy. The railroad hoped to profit from hauling raw materials into the region, and finished products out. Most "exports" from the South, however, were from mills, farms and forests.
118. SIAHM1_150723_601.JPG: Railroaders behind the Scenes It took a vast, coordinated army of workers to run a large railroad. In the late 1920s, there were over 1.7 million rail employees nationwide. Most railroaders labored behind the scenes, without the glamour in folklore and culture that the publicly visible locomotive engineers and conductors enjoyed. Meet a few of the less-visible railroad employees. Clerks: Railroad companies were big businesses, and they generated a vast amount of paperwork. About 20 percent of the nation's railroad workers were clerks. These employees created bills, kept accounts, dealt with the payroll, filed reports with government regulatory agencies, and ordered thousands of supplies for far-flung offices, repair shops, and terminals.
119. SIAHM1_150723_606.JPG: Clerks: Railroad companies were big businesses, and they generated a vast amount of paperwork. About 20 percent of the nation's railroad workers were clerks. These employees created bills, kept accounts, dealt with the payroll, filed reports with government regulatory agencies, and ordered thousands of supplies for far-flung offices, repair shops, and terminals.
120. SIAHM1_150723_608.JPG: Track Workers: Train safety depended on thousands of track workers -- including inspectors, track-construction gangs, and bridge builders. Civil engineers designed structures and track layouts, while maintenance crews replaced worn-out or broken rails and old crossties and aligned track to high precision.
121. SIAHM1_150723_610.JPG: Dispatchers: Until the 1950s, dispatchers coordinated train movements primarily by telegraphed messages. Orders conveyed by the dots and dashes of Morse code directed trains to use specified routes to avoid collisions and kept dispatchers up to the minute on train locations. There were no radios, so depot telegraphers personally delivered the orders to train crews as written messages
122. SIAHM1_150723_613.JPG: Tower Operators: At major junctions, where many tracks came together from different routes, a tower operator controlled the trains in shifting from track to track. The operator used the long levers to set or change the track switches mechanically. Setting a proper route through a maze of switches took skill. Changing signal lights told train crews the route was safe.
123. SIAHM1_150723_616.JPG: North Carolina, 1927 Railway Express Agents: The thousands of packages people sent daily that were too large for the U.S. mail went by railway express. Agents worked for companies such as American Railway Express, Adams Express Company, Wells Fargo, and Railway Express Agency. These firms had their own offices in large rail stations, but in small depots, the stationmaster's duties included serving as express agent.
124. SIAHM1_150723_623.JPG: Locomotive Engineer Running a steam locomotive combined two responsibilities: managing a highly complex steam boiler -- in the case of No. 1401, about 3,000 horsepower -- and controlling the safe speed of a massive vehicle that could weigh thousands of tons, counting engine and cars. An engineer specialized in one "division" of railroad, 100-150 miles long. The engineer needed to know the location of every signal, every curve, and the slightest change in uphill or downhill grade throughout the route in order to safely control the train.
125. SIAHM1_150723_626.JPG: Locomotive Fireman The fireman and engineer operated a steam locomotive as a team. The fireman managed the output of steam. His boiler had to respond to frequent changes in demand for power, as the train sped up, climbed hills, changed speeds, and stopped at stations. A skilled fireman anticipated changing demand as he fed coal to the firebox and water to the boiler. At the same time, the fireman was the "copilot" of the train who knew the signals, curves, and grade changes as well as the engineer. Fireman stoking locomotive's firebox: On some steam locomotives, the fireman controlled a steam-driven mechanical stoker that fed coal to the firebox. But many times, he still needed to add coal with a scoop (not a "shovel").
126. SIAHM1_150723_630.JPG: Ps-4 class steam locomotive No. 1401, 1926: No. 1401 is one of 64 locomotives of its class that ran on the Southern Railway from the mid-1920s until the early 1950s. A flagship locomotive of "the Southern," the 1401 rolled on the Charlotte Division, between Greenville, South Carolina, and Salisbury, North Carolina. It pulled passenger trains at speeds up to 80 miles per hour. In April 1945, the 1401 pulled President Franklin Roosevelt's funeral train on part of its journey to Washington, D.C. Retired in 1952, the 1401 came to the Smithsonian in 1961.
127. SIAHM1_150723_643.JPG: Promoting Good Roads Although the Good Roads Movement began in the 1880s, it continued into the twentieth century. In North Carolina, activists called for a hard-surfaced road network, built and managed by the state, to replace an ineffectual district-by-district construction program. In 1921, the General Assembly passed a good roads bill. Supporters claimed that roads would help connect the state's textile industry and local farmers to national railroad and waterway networks. By 1925, funds raised by a gasoline tax, automobile license fees, and federal government highway bonds paid for 7,680 miles of improved roads. Stuck in the mud: "Get a horse!" was a common remark directed at car owners in such a predicament. After a few experiences like this, many motorists supported higher taxes for improved roads.
128. SIAHM1_150723_645.JPG: Magazine cover showing Highway 10 near Asheville, North Carolina, 1928: With the influx of public money, North Carolina began to build roads to connect all its county seats. Improved road networks and improved road surfaces allowed year-round automobile travel to become a reality. Kramer farm wagon, 1925: Farmers' wagons served many purposes. They picked up and delivered goods, and also served as passenger vehicles when benches or extra wagon seats were added. In 1926, despite the growing use of the automobile, more than 200,000 new wagons were manufactured, and millions were still in use around the country.
129. SIAHM1_150723_659.JPG: Spencer, an Industrial Community Spencer, a suburb of Salisbury, owed its existence to the Southern Railway. The town began in 1897, springing up around 141 acres of land the Southern bought to build a railroad repair-shop complex. Although the railway did not directly develop the town, more than 2,500 machinists, foundry workers, boilermakers, carpenters, and other shop workers and their families lived in Spencer. They and the merchants who supplied their needs made Spencer a thriving industrial community. Parade in downtown Spencer, 1920s: Spencer had a strong civic identity and held the usual array of holiday celebrations.
130. SIAHM1_150723_665.JPG: Steam Locomotive Shop Work Work in the Spencer Shops was hot and hard. The pay was good and workers took pride in their craft. In the 1920s, the shops employed many African Americans as laborers, while at the top of the craft hierarchy stood the master boilermakers and master machinists. Labor disputes occasionally simmered, and in 1922 Spencer workers took part in the nationwide shopmen's strike, the most extensive strike of the 20th century. Foundrymen forging a steel billet under a steam hammer
131. SIAHM1_150723_667.JPG: Aerial view of Spencer Shops in its heyday
132. SIAHM1_150723_690.JPG: What Happened Next? What Happened to the Railroads? Before World War II, railroads were an integral part of peoples' lives and one of the nation's premier businesses. They employed between 1.5 and 2 million people annually -- about 10 percent of all industrial workers -- and transported hundreds of billions of ton-miles of freight. But after the war, as Americans embraced cars, trucks, and highways, the role of railroads changed. In the 1940s, diesel locomotives began to be introduced on U.S. railroads in large numbers. Steam and diesel locomotives ran side by side for a brief time in the 1940s and early 1950s, but new diesel locomotives took over as they radically cut maintenance and operating expenses. Steam locomotive 1401 was last repaired at Spencer in 1951. All steam locomotives on the Southern were retired by 1953, and Spencer Shops, not easily convertible to diesel work, closed in 1960 By 1950, rail traffic was dropping steadily, motivating rail managers to cut costs. This drop in traffic and the fact that diesels needed far fewer people to maintain them combined to cut rail employment. In 1962, U.S. railroads had half the number of workers they had in 1946. In the 1980s and 1990s, passenger trains were no longer a part of most travelers' lives. But railroads rebounded economically, due to growth in rail shipment of freight containers, automobiles, coal, grain, food, and other products. In the 1990s, rails carried more commercial freight more miles than waterways or trucks.
133. SIAHM1_150723_699.JPG: What Happened Next? What Happened to Plessy? Transportation has long been a flash point in the struggle for racial equality in America. In 1896, the Supreme Court's Plessy v. Ferguson decision declared racial segregation legal. For the next half century, until 1954's Brown v. Board of Education reversed Plessy, the doctrine of "separate but equal" was the law of the land. After 1954, segregation remained a common practice. Mass protests against segregated transportation helped create the modern civil rights movement. The Montgomery, Alabama, bus boycott of 1955-56 showed the power of nonviolent direct action and encouraged other forms of protest against institutionalized racism. Transportation issues remained at the forefront of the movement when it entered the next stage: making sure that the new laws were being applied. In 1961, integrated groups of activists calling themselves Freedom Riders boarded buses and traveled into the South to see if bus stations were desegregated as ordered. The Freedom Riders were attacked as they traveled, and one of their buses was burned in Alabama. But their efforts pressured the federal government to make states comply with desegregation laws. Because of these kinds of protests over transportation, laws and social customs began to change throughout the segregated South.
134. SIAHM2_150723_006.JPG: Crossing the Country The Army Crosses the Continent: In the summer of 1919, the United States Army organized a convoy of trucks, automobiles, trailers, and motorcycles that traveled from Washington to San Francisco. The drive was a publicity stunt, and also served to test military vehicles developed during World War I, to train troops, and to highlight the inadequacy of roads. Rural roads were so poor that engineers had to build and repair bridges and rescue trucks that crashed through inadequate wooden bridges built to accommodate horse and wagon traffic.
135. SIAHM2_150723_008.JPG: Driving for Voting Rights: At a time when few women owned or drove cars, taking the wheel was a powerful symbolic act. In 1916, suffragists Nell Richardson and Alice Burke, with their cat Saxon, drove across and around the country to drum up support for voting rights for women. Their yellow Saxon automobile, nicknamed the "Golden Flier," became a moving symbol of women's rights and a podium for speeches in many towns and cities. Sponsored by the National American Woman Suffrage Association, the trip began and ended in New York City. It took five months, and covered more than 10,000 miles. Nell Richardson, Alice Burke, and the "Golden Flier," 1916: As Burke and Richardson drove around the country, overcoming the challenges of rough roads and mechanical breakdowns, they showed that women could be at home in the "masculine" domain of machines.
136. SIAHM2_150723_010.JPG: Taking to the "Road" H. Nelson Jackson's trip in 1903 inspired dozens of motorists to cross the country. In 1909, Alice Huyler Ramsey, of Hackensack, New Jersey, became the first woman to drive across the United States. Challenged by a sales manager for Maxwell automobiles, she drove a Maxwell touring car from New York to San Francisco in 59 days. Like Jackson, Ramsey and her three female passengers packed a block and tackle and used it often in the muddy Midwest. Between 1909 and 1975, Ramsey drove across the country more than 30 times.
137. SIAHM2_150723_012.JPG: Pulling the car out: Western roads were still unimproved in 1909 when Alice Huyler Ramsey drove across the country. She extracted the Maxwell from washouts and mudholes with block and tackle, a jack, even fence rails under the wheels. Occasionally horses and cars gave her a tow.
138. SIAHM2_150723_016.JPG: Alice Ramsey and her companions on the road, 1909: Ramsey's sisters-in-law and a friend accompanied her on the trip from New York to San Francisco. Here they prepare to light the acetylene gas headlamps.
139. SIAHM2_150723_022.JPG: Americans Adopt the Auto Cars Everywhere? For automobiles to become a permanent fixture on the American landscape -- rather than simply a toy for the rich -- people needed to be convinced that they were reliable, useful, appropriate, and even necessary. In the early years of motoring, not all Americans were convinced that the new "devil wagons" were here to stay. But as people came to value the convenience of the car, and as they adapted it to their own needs, cars became a significant part of everyday life. To cope with the changes that "automobility" brought, the nation developed an elaborate system of law, commerce, and custom. Americans wrote new laws, rebuilt roads, and developed new production techniques. A slew of businesses -- gas stations, tire shops, garages -- sprang up to supply drivers' needs. By 1930, 23 million cars were on the road, and more than half of American families owned a car.
140. SIAHM2_150723_024.JPG: Licensing Cars and Drivers As the number of motor vehicles reached tens of thousands, state and local governments assumed a new power: authorizing vehicles and drivers. In 1901, New York became the first state to register automobiles; by 1918 all states required license plates. States were slower to require licenses for drivers. Only 39 states issued them by 1935 and few required a test, despite widespread concern about incompetent drivers. Early motorists were taught to drive by automobile salesmen, family and friends, or organizations like the YMCA. By the 1930s, many high schools offered driver education.
141. SIAHM2_150723_027.JPG: Coping with Traffic: By the 1920s, congestion, accidents, and parking problems clogged city streets. Cities imposed speed limits, installed traffic signals, and tried one-way streets, parking restrictions, and parking meters to keep vehicles moving. More traffic also meant more traffic laws. William P. Eno, a crusader for better traffic management, composed "Rules of the Road" and other traffic guides, which became the basis for many cities' traffic laws. Traffic management, road maintenance, expanded police departments, and new construction ate up large segments of municipal budgets, and cities looked for new sources of revenue to cope with the presence of motor vehicles.
142. SIAHM2_150723_030.JPG: Americans Adopt the Auto Traffic tower: In the 1920s, traffic towers enabled police officers to see above trucks, trolleys, and heavy traffic as they operated signals. This tower stood at Fifth Avenue and 42nd Street in New York City.
143. SIAHM2_150723_033.JPG: Parking Meters: Parking meters were introduced in Oklahoma City in 1935 in response to double parking, all-day parking, and congestion at the curb lane. Meters provided frequent parking turnover and much-needed revenue for municipal traffic programs.
144. SIAHM2_150723_036.JPG: "Fill 'er Up!" The American petroleum industry boomed as the automobile industry developed in the 20th century. As companies found more oil, refiners developed ways to produce more gasoline from each barrel. By the early 1920s most companies began to add tetraethyl lead to fuel to reduce engine knocking. This allowed car manufactures to build more powerful engines -- but also exposed generations of children and adults to toxic levels of lead.
145. SIAHM2_150723_037.JPG: Texas oil field, 1919: Americans searched for and exploited huge deposits of oil in the South and West. At the same time, fears that the supply would run short led American companies to look for oil elsewhere in the world, involving them in the politics of the Middle East, Mexico, and other oil-rich regions.
146. SIAHM2_150723_041.JPG: Oil workers, Wyoming, early 1920s: By 1919, nearly 100,000 men worked in the oil fields. Even more were employed building pipelines and working in refineries, corporate offices, and marketing. Despite the Depression, by the mid-1930s the oil industry employed some 1 million people.
147. SIAHM2_150723_044.JPG: Pipeline workers, about 1900: Getting gas to consumers presented a challenge for producers. They built pipelines (90,000 miles by 1930) and used railroads, ships, and trucks to deliver petroleum.
148. SIAHM2_150723_048.JPG: Gas Stations: Before there were filling stations, consumers bought gasoline out of a barrel at the grocery or hardware store. But the new market for gas and consumer desire to buy gas more easily soon led to a landscape dotted with gas stations -- more than 200,000 by 1935. Although it doesn't seem revolutionary now, gas stations were the first commercial buildings to be set back from the street. The design accommodated cars without disrupting street traffic and eventually dominated the American retail landscape.
149. SIAHM2_150723_054.JPG: Canfield filling station, Lakewood, Ohio, 1918: By 1930 Americans were pumping more than 15 billion gallons of gas into their cars annually, mainly from stations like this one, which was designed to avoid blocking the flow of traffic
150. SIAHM2_150723_058.JPG: Atlantic Refining Company advertisement, 1915: As more people took up driving, they demanded access to gasoline wherever they went, and the industry searched for ways to get gas to the consumer. This advertisement offers home delivery of gasoline in five-gallon jugs.
151. SIAHM2_150723_068.JPG: Automobile Manufacturers: Today a few very large companies produce most of the cars in the United States. In the early 1900s there were over 100 companies building gasoline, steam, and electric automobiles, often in very small quantities. The number of automakers peaked in the 1910s. By the 1930s, many small manufacturers had folded, unable to compete with low production costs at Ford, General Motors, and Chrysler.
152. SIAHM2_150723_080.JPG: Building and Selling Cars: The first auto manufacturers were bicycle and carriage makers, metalworkers, and machinists. In the 1900s and 1910s, hundreds of new companies created cars of varying price and quality in limited numbers. Between 1910 and 1914, the Ford Motor Company introduced mass production, the moving assembly line, low prices, and consistent quality. Henry Ford's aggressive, mass-market strategy and personal appeal persuaded millions of Americans to purchase a Model T. In the 1920s, General Motors offered customers credit buying, affordable luxury, and a range of automobiles for every taste and income level -- and the annual model change. These auto giants established a model for mass-production technology, national advertising, and product appeal.
153. SIAHM2_150723_082.JPG: Fixing Cars Early cars required frequent maintenance and repairs. Many machinists, blacksmiths, bicycle mechanics, and others started auto repair shops. New-car dealers and gasoline stations also offered repairs, and most cities had garages that stored, cleaned, fueled, and serviced automobiles. Even though cars became more reliable, the auto repair business remained a necessity. By the 1920s there were more than 60,000 service shops. In the 1930s, oil companies also provided repairs. They used brand identity and the promise of uniform quality to attract customers.
154. SIAHM2_150723_089.JPG: Ford repair shop, Oklahoma, 1911: One of the selling points of the Ford Model T was the availability of parts and service at dealers in towns and cities across America.
155. SIAHM2_150723_093.JPG: Home Repair: Every driver learned to change and repair tires, which blew out frequently. Many owners also performed minor repairs for pleasure, convenience, and savings. Some got their skills from dealing with farm machinery. Others learned from repair manuals. The simplicity of the Ford Model T especially endeared it to millions of owners, many of whom claimed to fix their cars with twine, baling wire, or clothespins. Usually a screwdriver, wrench, hammer, and pliers were all the tools they needed.
156. SIAHM2_150723_097.JPG: Inventing a Better Car: Many people thought that cars, as the dealer sold them, were inefficient or lacked much-needed accessories. Model T owners sent the Ford Motor Company ideas for improvements, and hundreds of mail-order gadgets and attachments allowed owners to upgrade the Model T or make it work better. Inventors fashioned devices that claimed to make cars safer, more fuel-efficient, or easier to use. Some of these devices later became standard features on cars. Others remained popular add-on items, and still others failed to catch on.
157. SIAHM2_150723_099.JPG: Ford Model T Roadster, 1926: Between 1908 and 1927, The Ford Model T's relatively low price and reliability enticed more than 15 million Americans to buy an automobile. In many of those years, the Ford Motor Company produced over half of all autos sold. The mass-produced Model T helped make America a nation of drivers.
158. SIAHM2_150723_109.JPG: Technological Choices Between the 1890s and 1920s, a standard automotive design emerged out of the competition between steam, electric, and internal-combustion cars. Manufacturers chose engines, drive trains, and accessories that they thought would attract buyers or make cars more powerful, cheaper, or easier to operate. The front-engine, shaft-driven internal-combustion car appeared by 1901 and became the overwhelming choice of motorists by 1910. Steam cars and electric cars fell out of favor and disappeared from the market in the 1920s.
159. SIAHM2_150723_111.JPG: Why did the steering wheel end up on the left? Some early cars had the wheel on the left, some on the right. Right-hand drive allowed entrance and exit at the pavement, but road improvements ended that advantage. And having the wheel on the right side made passing a dodgy proposition. The very popular Ford Model T, introduced in 1908, had its steering wheel on the left. It set the style for later cars.
160. SIAHM2_150723_116.JPG: Why did the gasoline engine, and not the steam engine or electric motor, become the most common power plant for cars? Electric cars, quiet and clean, appealed to the wealthy and to women, a smaller market at the time. Steam cars, faster but harder to start and operate, appealed to enthusiasts. The gasoline engine was almost as easy to use as an electric, and easier to start and drive than a steam engine. Its versatility, speed, range, sportiness, and ease of use appealed to people buying cars not just for getting around town, but also for longer trips, and for the pleasure of driving.
161. SIAHM2_150723_119.JPG: Why did the closed body become the standard type of car? Though more expensive, heavier, hotter in the summer, and dangerous before the introduction of safety glass in the 1920s, the closed body appealed to the buyer who wanted an affordable luxury. It kept you cleaner, and out of the weather. And when metal replaced wood, it was easier to manufacture. Middle-class city and suburb dwellers especially appreciated the closed-body car.
162. SIAHM2_150723_136.JPG: Lincoln Highway marker, 1928: Created in 1913, the Lincoln Highway Association promoted the building of a paved highway from New York to California. Largely supported by donations from car-related businesses, the association marked out a route and funded sample stretches of pavement ("seedling miles") to encourage local governments to build the rest. In 1928 the association, with the help of the Boy Scouts and concrete manufacturers, placed 3,000 of these markers along the route. The Lincoln Highway, America's first transcontinental highway, was finally fully paved in the 1930s.
163. SIAHM2_150723_141.JPG: Lincoln Highway Association plaque, abo