BGuthrie Photos: DC -- U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum -- Permanent: (2) Anschluss (Union)

DC -- U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum -- Permanent: (2) Anschluss (Union):

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Copyrights: All pictures were taken by amateur photographer Bruce Guthrie (me!) who retains copyright on them. Free for non-commercial use with attribution. See the [Creative Commons] definition of what this means. "Photos (c) Bruce Guthrie" is fine for attribution. (Commercial use folks including AI scrapers can of course contact me.) Feel free to use in publications and pages with attribution but you don't have permission to sell the photos themselves. A free copy of any printed publication using any photographs is requested. Descriptive text, if any, is from a mixture of sources, quite frequently from signs at the location or from official web sites; copyrights, if any, are retained by their original owners.

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Specific picture descriptions: Photos above with "i" icons next to the bracketed sequence numbers (e.g. "[1] ") are described as follows:
1. HOLOP2_150405_016.JPG: Expansion without War
2. HOLOP2_150405_020.JPG: Expansion without War
3. HOLOP2_150405_028.JPG: The Plight of Austrian Jews
4. HOLOP2_150405_030.JPG: After the Anschluss, Jews in Austria were attacked and were forced to scrub sidewalks. Jewish homes and offices were defaced.
5. HOLOP2_150405_038.JPG: The British Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, arrived for the Munich conference on September 29, 1938.
6. HOLOP2_150405_043.JPG: German Army Entering Prague: In March 1939, Hitler occupied what remained of Bohemia and Moravia after the Munich agreement of September 1938. Unlike the Austrians, the Czechs expressed anger and resentment toward the invading German troops. Prague, Czechoslovakia, March 15, 1939.
7. HOLOP2_150405_050.JPG: Following the incorporation of Austria into the German Reich, the Nazis seized control of the media by confiscating or shutting down news outlets. This poster states that the Nazi Party has taken over the Austrian weekly newsreel.
8. HOLOP2_150405_060.JPG: German Annexations, 1935-1939
9. HOLOP2_150405_070.JPG: No Help, No Haven, 1938
10. HOLOP2_150405_076.JPG: No Help, No Haven, 1938
11. HOLOP2_150405_088.JPG: "Night of Broken Glass"
12. HOLOP2_150405_093.JPG: "Night of Broken Glass"
13. HOLOP2_150405_096.JPG: The focal point of every synagogue is the Torah. These fragments are from Torahs damaged in Marburg and Vienna synagogues on the "Night of Broken Glass." In the Vienna synagogue, Nazis cut up the Torah and threw the pieces on the street.
14. HOLOP2_150405_107.JPG: One of the finest examples of synagogue architecture in Germany was in the industrial city of Essen. Dedicated in 1913, it served a community of about 4,500 in 1933. 1938?
15. HOLOP2_150405_131.JPG: Every synagogue has an ark, a sacred place where the Torah -- a scroll of the Hebrew Bible -- is safeguarded. This ark is from the synagogue of Nentershcausen, a small town in Germany. On the "Night of Broken Glass," Nazis defaced the inscription, which reads "Know before whom you stand."
16. HOLOP2_150405_153.JPG: "Enemies of the State"
17. HOLOP2_150405_155.JPG: "Enemies of the State"
18. HOLOP2_150405_164.JPG: Political Opponents
19. HOLOP2_150405_168.JPG: Homosexuals
20. HOLOP2_150405_170.JPG: Jehovah's Witnesses
21. HOLOP2_150405_175.JPG: Freemasons
22. HOLOP2_150405_184.JPG: Roma (Gypsy) Wagon
23. HOLOP2_150405_192.JPG: The Social Democratic Party's underground collected information about German public opinion under Nazi rule and smuggled it out of the country. The party's leadership-in-exile then compiled this data into German and English monthly reports, such as this one.
24. HOLOP2_150405_201.JPG: Pastor Martin Niemoller (above) served as one of the leaders of the Confessing Church, an oppositional Lutheran organization that openly criticized Nazi religious policies. Prior to his arrest in 1937, Niemoller used this typewriter to prepare his sermons and compose letters.
25. HOLOP2_150405_206.JPG: Within weeks of taking power in Germany, the Nazis began using "emergency" decrees to arrest thousands of Communists and others deemed "enemies of the state." As part of this crackdown, German police raided the Communist Party's headquarters and confiscated its oppositional literature. Berlin, March 6-8, 1933.
26. HOLOP2_150405_223.JPG: Roma (Gypsies)
27. HOLOP2_150405_231.JPG: Thereia WInterstein's father, Johann, (center, with cane) created and sold baskets in German marketplaces. He transported his tools and supplies in this wagon. In 1944, he was forcibly sterilized at the Wurzburg University Surgical Clinic.
28. HOLOP2_150405_238.JPG: Victims of Nazi Persecution
29. HOLOP2_150405_259.JPG: Theresia Winterstein, a Sintezza (Gypsy) dancer, performed in various Wurzburg theaters until 1941, when she was banned from the stage. The Criminal Police classified here as a "Gypsy mixed breed with predominantly Gypsy blood." Wurzburg, Germany, 1942.
30. HOLOP2_150405_268.JPG: Nazi Society
31. HOLOP2_150405_272.JPG: Nazi Society
32. HOLOP2_150405_276.JPG: The Nazi regime glorified Adolf Hitler as the infallible leader -- Fuhrer -- who united the German people into a "national community." His portrait appeared in public buildings, schools, and even private homes. This 1941 painting depicts Hitler as a resolute military leader.
33. HOLOP2_150405_284.JPG: The Hitler Youth was a vehicle for the regimentation and indoctrination of German boys. Membership in it became obligatory on March 25, 1939. Berlin, February 10, 1934.
34. HOLOP2_150405_288.JPG: In 1933, Ludwig Muller was appointed as Reich Bishop, with the mandate to unite all Protestant churches into a single, Nazi-controlled organization. While most churches acquiesced to Nazi rule, they resisted unification. Nuremberg, 1934.
35. HOLOP2_150405_294.JPG: University students proved especially vulnerable to Nazi influence. Even before 1933, the National Socialist German Students' League dominated student government at several universities.
36. HOLOP2_150405_298.JPG: Girls were pressured into the League of German Girls, a parallel organization to the Hitler Youth. These girls belonged to a branch of the league called Faith and Beauty, which aimed to prepare them for housekeeping and motherland. 1938?
37. HOLOP2_150405_304.JPG: German businessmen and industrialists benefited handsomely from their cooperation with the Nazi regime. Here, Hitler honors Gustav Krupp, head of the Krupp munitions corporation and chairman of the Reich Association of German Industry, for his contribution to Germany's military successes. Essen, September 14, 1940.
38. HOLOP2_150405_315.JPG: After the death of President von Hindenburg, Germany military recruits swore unconditional obedience to Hitler personally. From then on military men considers any resistance against the Nazi regime a crime and a dishonor. 1934?
39. HOLOP2_150405_318.JPG: Under Nazi rule, the German parliament was little more than a sounding board for Hitler's speeches. The dictator is visible on the left side of the photograph. Berlin, May 21, 1935.
40. HOLOP2_150405_327.JPG: German men between the ages of 18 and 25 had to serve for one year in the paramilitary Reich Labor Service. Here, a Labor Service contingent marches in review at the 1937 Nazi party rally. Nuremberg, September 8, 1937.
41. HOLOP2_150405_335.JPG: Under Hitler, the German judiciary lost ifs independent status. In this photograph, members of the Berlin criminal court give the Nazi salute on October 1, 1936, the day that judges were required to wear the Nazi eagle-and-swastika emblem on their court robes.
42. HOLOP2_150405_340.JPG: Prisoners stand for roll call in the Buchenwald concentration camp. As Hitler prepared Germany for war, Nazi repression grew more severe. Just after the "Night of Broken Glass," the total concentration camp population reached its prewar high point of about 60,000. 1938?
43. HOLOP2_150405_347.JPG: Busts of Hitler and Goring adorn a hallway of the Gestapo headquarters in Berlin. The Gestapo conducted brutal political persecution in relative secrecy. 1934.
44. HOLOP2_150405_353.JPG: In 1920, at Hitler's urging, the Nazi party adopted the swastika as its official symbol. A law passed on September 15, 1935 -- the same date as the Nuremberg Laws -- declared the Nazi banner to be the national flag of Germany.
45. HOLOP2_150405_362.JPG: Four men dominated the German police apparatus: SS chief Heinrich Himmler (center), Arthur Nebe, head of the Reich Criminal Police (2nd from left), Reinhard Heydrich, Chief of the Security Police (right), and Gestapo chief Heinrich Muller (far right). Munich, 1939.
46. HOLOP2_150405_369.JPG: Two SA men beat up a political opponent. Early in the Nazi regime, opposition was broken not by the Gestapo but by SA brownshirts. March, 1933?
47. HOLOP2_150405_372.JPG: Heinrich Himmler's blackshirted SS troops goose-step in parade. During the 1930s, Himmler gradually took control over all police forces in Germany. Munich, 1935?
48. HOLOP2_150405_377.JPG: Plainclothes police search a civilian for identity papers. Every adult German had to carry proof of identity at all times. 1933?
49. HOLOP2_150405_382.JPG: Nazi officials inspect prisoners in the Dachau concentration camp. In the first years of Nazi rule, most concentration camp inmates in Germany were political opponents of the regime. June 28, 1938.
50. HOLOP2_150405_390.JPG: SS officials man the teletype room at the Gestapo headquarters in Berlin, receiving information from 62 field offices. The Gestapo relied on a constant flow of denunciation from SA men, party officials, and ordinary Germans. 1943?
51. HOLOP2_150405_394.JPG: Police interrogate a political prisoner in Vienna. The Nazi regiment brought terror to Austria immediately after its incorporation by Germany. March, 1938.
52. HOLOP2_150405_399.JPG: Heinrich Himmler, the SS chief, examines a model of the Dachau concentration camp with Rudolf Hess, Hitler's personal representative. Beginning the mid-1930s, Himmler carried out a massive expansion of the concentration camp system. Dachau, May 8, 1936.
53. HOLOP2_150405_408.JPG: Police State
54. HOLOP2_150405_412.JPG: Police State
55. HOLOP2_150405_414.JPG: Search for Refuge
56. HOLOP2_150405_417.JPG: Search for Refuge
57. HOLOP2_150405_426.JPG: Viennese Jews wait in line at a police station to obtain emigration visas. 1938.
58. HOLOP2_150405_444.JPG: Forced Emigration from Austria
59. HOLOP2_150405_476.JPG: The Voyage of the St. Louis
60. HOLOP2_150405_479.JPG: The Voyage of the St. Louis
61. HOLOP2_150405_495.JPG: When passengers arrived in Havana harbor, the ship's crew issued Cuban Immigration Department identity cards, such as this one for Evelyn Klein. Cuban authorities, however, refused to allow the vast majority of passengers to disembark.
62. HOLOP2_150405_499.JPG: The St. Louis embarked on its transatlantic journey from Hamburg, Germany, on May 13, 1939.
63. HOLOP2_150405_504.JPG: Between departing Germany and learning they would not be allowed to land in Cuba, the passengers enjoyed a relaxed and festive atmosphere aboard the St. Louis, as these photographs suggest.
64. HOLOP2_150405_506.JPG: The long days of waiting in the Havana harbor were filled with frustration and fear. Two refugees attempted suicide. May 27-June 2, 1939.
65. HOLOP2_150405_508.JPG: In the Havana harbor, friends and relatives of the refugees tried to approach the St. Louis, but they were turned back. May 27-June 2, 1939.
66. HOLOP2_150405_511.JPG: While waiting to disembark, passengers aboard the St. Louis took photographs of Havana and the boatloads of friends, relatives, and police who sailed out into the city's harbor.
67. HOLOP2_150405_515.JPG: After a monthlong journey, the St. Louis landed in Antwerp, Belgium, a few hundred miles from its point of departure. June 18, 1939.
68. HOLOP2_150405_522.JPG: The St. Louis arrives in Antwerp under close police surveillance. Many of the refugees were transferred to internment camps in several Western European countries. June 17, 1939.
69. HOLOP2_150405_527.JPG: Betty Behrendt kept a record of her experiences on board the St. Louis. This "travel report," written on June 5, 1939, details the passengers' hopes when they entered Havana harbor and their frustrations when they were denied entry into Cuba.
70. HOLOP2_150405_539.JPG: Belgium took in 214 refugees, the Netherlands 181, Britain 287, and France 224. Hundreds of the refugees perished later in the Holocaust. Antwerp, Belgium, June 17, 1939.
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