BGuthrie Photos: DC -- Natl Museum of the American Indian -- Exhibit: The Great Inka Road: Engineering an Empire

DC -- Natl Museum of the American Indian -- Exhibit: The Great Inka Road: Engineering an Empire:

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Description of Pictures: The Great Inka Road: Engineering an Empire
June 26, 2015 – June 1, 2018
Construction of the Inka Road stands as one of the monumental engineering achievements in history. A network more than 20,000 miles long, crossing mountains and tropical lowlands, rivers and deserts, the Great Inka Road linked Cusco, the administrative capital and spiritual center of the Inka world, to the farthest reaches of its empire. The road continues to serve contemporary Andean communities across Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile as a sacred space and symbol of cultural continuity. In 2014, the United Nations cultural agency, UNESCO, recognized the Inka Road as a World Heritage site.
The Great Inka Road: Engineering an Empire explores the foundations of the Inka Road in earlier Andean cultures, technologies that made building the road possible, the cosmology and political organization of the Inka world and the legacy of the Inka Empire during the colonial period and in the present day.

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Copyrights: All pictures were taken by amateur photographer Bruce Guthrie (me!) who retains copyright on them. Free for non-commercial use with attribution. See the [Creative Commons] definition of what this means. "Photos (c) Bruce Guthrie" is fine for attribution. (Commercial use folks including AI scrapers can of course contact me.) Feel free to use in publications and pages with attribution but you don't have permission to sell the photos themselves. A free copy of any printed publication using any photographs is requested. Descriptive text, if any, is from a mixture of sources, quite frequently from signs at the location or from official web sites; copyrights, if any, are retained by their original owners.

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Specific picture descriptions: Photos above with "i" icons next to the bracketed sequence numbers (e.g. "[1] ") are described as follows:
1. AMINIR_150822_004.JPG: The Great Inka Road Engineering an Empire
2. AMINIR_150822_008.JPG: "The 45,000-mile Interstate Highway System that unites our nation and powers our economy took 40 years and $425 billion to build. Five hundred years earlier, a vast empire was bound by a 24,000-mile road network built without benefit of iron or the wheel. Today, indigenous South American peoples still use parts of that engineering marvel -- the Inka Road." -- Wayne Clough, Secretary Emeritus of the Smithsonian, 2011
3. AMINIR_150822_013.JPG: "The whole road is of one design...made by hand and breaking through mountain chains and hillsides...it is one of the greatest constructions that the world has ever seen." -- Miguel de Estete, Noticia del Perú [News from Peru], 1535
4. AMINIR_150822_017.JPG: Tawantinsuyu The Inka Empire The Inka Empire rose rapidly and burned bright. In little more than 100 yaers, it grew from a small kingdom in the highlands of Peru to become the largest empire in the Americas. The Qhapaq Ñan, or Road of the Inka, made this triumph possible. A vast complex of roads, bridges, and other structures, the Qhapaq Ñan was the largest construction in the Western Hemisphere when Inka power was at its height. The Inka state used the road system strategically to oversee diverse populations within an empire of 2 million square kilometers (772,000 square miles), the equivalent of California, Nevada, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas combined.
5. AMINIR_150822_025.JPG: Tawantinsuyu The Inka called their empire Tawantinsuyu, which means "the four regions together." At its peak, the empire covered much of western South America.
6. AMINIR_150822_029.JPG: Ancestors of the Inka Long before the Inkas reigned, there lived in these regions men like giants, as large as the figures sculpted in stone reveal. -- Pedro de Cieza de León, chronicler of Peru, 1553 14,000 years of unique cultures preceded the Inka in the Andes. Four in particular -- Chavín, Tiwanaku, Wari, and Chimú -- influenced Inka traditions and laid the groundwork for the rise of the Inka Empire and the monumental Qhapaq Ñan.
7. AMINIR_150822_033.JPG: Chavín | 1,000 BC–AD 100 Chavín was the first great unifying culture in the Andes. Its scattered settlements, the largest of which was Chavín de Huántar, shared a distinctive art, architecture, and way of life that influenced a number of ethnic groups.
8. AMINIR_150822_037.JPG: Chavín stirrup-spout bottle , ca. 800–100 BC. Tembladera, Peru. Ceramic. This vessel takes the shape of Strombus and Spondylus shells, which have been sacred materials to Andean people since the Chavín period.
9. AMINIR_150822_043.JPG: Chavín head ornament 800–200 BC. Chongoyape, Peru. Gold.
10. AMINIR_150822_047.JPG: Tiwanaku | AD 400–1000 Located near Lake Titicaca, the city of Tiwanaku was the core of a culture whose religion, art, and architecture influenced much of the southern Andes. To foster trade and the distribution of resources, the Aymara people of Tiwanaku built roads all the way to the Pacific Coast.
11. AMINIR_150822_055.JPG: Wari | AD 600–1100 The Wari were empire builders. From the highlands of Peru, they expanded their territory and spread their religion. To control remote areas, the Wari established provincial centers and an extensive road network.
12. AMINIR_150822_060.JPG: Chimú | AD 1100–1400 The well-organized Chimú capital, Chan Chan, was the largest city in the Western Hemisphere in its day. The Chimú built a road network, canals, and irrigation systems to help them expand along the northern coast of Peru.
13. AMINIR_150822_065.JPG: Inka AD 1200-1533
14. AMINIR_150822_067.JPG: Tiwanaku incense burner, AD 600–900. Tiwanaku, Bolivia. Ceramic. This ceremonial vessel depicts a puma, an animal symbolically associated with the earth in the Andean world.
15. AMINIR_150822_074.JPG: (left) Tiwanaku incense burner, AD 600–900. Tiwanaku, Bolivia. Ceramic. This ceremonial vessel depicts a condor, an animal symbolically associated with the sky in the Andean world.
16. AMINIR_150822_078.JPG: Wari painted jar, AD 800–1000. Nazca region, Peru. Ceramic.
17. AMINIR_150822_080.JPG: Wari painted vessel with snake, AD 800–1000. Chancay Valley, Peru. Ceramic. A sacred animal, the snake is symbolically linked with water and fertility.
18. AMINIR_150822_087.JPG: himú stirrup-spout bottle in the form of a duck, AD 1100–1400. North coast of Peru. Ceramic.
19. AMINIR_150822_088.JPG: Chimú stirrup-spout bottle in the form of a puma, AD 1100–1400. North coast of Peru. Ceramic.
20. AMINIR_150822_092.JPG: Inka arybalo, AD 1450–1532. Juan Benigno Vela (Pataló), Ecuador. Ceramic, paint. This ceramic shape is known as an arybalo and is a form unique to the Inka period. Arybalos were vessels used for carrying liquids like water and chicha (corn beer).
21. AMINIR_150822_094.JPG: nka cylindrical cup with human face in relief, AD 1470–1532. Cusco region, Peru. Silver
22. AMINIR_150822_097.JPG: Inka | AD 1200–1533 The Inka began their rise in the early 1200s. Based in Cusco, they grew first into a small kingdom, adapting many practices and policies of earlier cultures. In 1438 Inka rulers began to conquer neighboring territories, eventually creating the largest empire in the Western Hemisphere.
23. AMINIR_150822_107.JPG: The Temple of Tiqzi Wiracocha, Raqchi, Peru, 2014. The remains of the central wall are all that have survived of this temple dedicated to the creator god. At 18 meters (59 feet) high, they suggest the monumentality of the original structure.
24. AMINIR_150822_112.JPG: Sacred Roads For Andean people, past and present, the Qhapaq Ñan is more than a road. It is a connection to the spiritual universe. It shares in the divine nature of Pachamama, holy Mother Earth.
25. AMINIR_150822_117.JPG: Inka cocha (bowl), AD 1450–1500. Peru. Stone. Ceremonial cochas (bowls) symbolize the waters of Lake Titicaca. Snake designs signify water and fertility, and the spiral is the symbol of Pachamama (Mother Earth).
26. AMINIR_150822_120.JPG: Creation Stories Tiqzi Wiracocha The Creator For ancient Andean peoples, the creator of the universe was Tiqzi Wiracocha. He created Inti (the sun), Mamaquilla (the moon), stars, plants, animals, and people. He laid out the main roads of the Qhapaq Ñan.
27. AMINIR_150822_127.JPG: Tiwanaku pendant with image of Tiqzi Wiracocha, AD 800–1100. Peru. Gold–silver–copper alloy.
28. AMINIR_150822_131.JPG: Creation Stories The Children of the Sun According to the Inka myth of origin, Inti (the sun) sent two of his children -- Manco Capac and Mama Ocllo -- to bring order and civilization to humankind. The pair emerged from Lake Titicaca and headed north to found a city. The city was Cusco, and their path was the first Inka Road. Manco Capac became the first Shapa Inka, ruler of the Inka people.
29. AMINIR_150822_138.JPG: Creation Stories The Andean Milky Way The Road in the Sky Throughout the Andes, the Milky Way was believed to be a river, Mayu, the source of all water on earth. For the Inka, earth and sky are connected, and the river Mayu mirrors the Qhapaq Ñan. Both are sacred, alive, and parts of one whole. Many cultures see figures in groupings (constellations) of stars. The Inka often found their constellations in the dark spaces between the stars, known as yana phuyu (dark clouds). In these dark clouds, they saw animals and other things from their daily lives.
30. AMINIR_150822_141.JPG: Cusco Heart of the Inka Universe Cusco was a holy city. It was the capital of the Inka Empire, home of the Shapa Inka (the Inka ruler), and the principal seat of religion. For the Inka, it was the chawpi (center) of the empire and the universe. From Cusco's main plaza, the roads of the Qhapaq Ñan stretched out to the four regions of Tawantinsuyu.
31. AMINIR_150822_150.JPG: "The city of Cusco is the principal one of all the cities and is the residence of the nobles, and is so great and beautiful that it would be worthy of Spain..." -- Pedro Sancho de la Hoz, secretary to Francisco Pizarro, 1534
32. AMINIR_150822_155.JPG: The Rumi Colca gateway, Cusco, Peru, 2014. From this gate, the Qhapaq Ñan extended from Cusco toward the region of Collasuyu.
33. AMINIR_150822_157.JPG: Entering a Sacred City In 1925, when I was eight years old, my mother took me from my native land of Anta to Cusco.... "During my journey, my mother showed me the sacred spring used for purification before entering Cusco. My mother asked me to remove my shoes, wash my feet, hands, and face, say a prayer.... Cusco is a sacred city, still powerful today." -- Demetrio Roca Wallparimachi (Quechua) Four gateways led into Cusco. At each gate was a sacred place where travelers would wash their hands, feet, and face while praying and asking permission to enter. Even today, Native people will pause a moment before entering Cusco.
34. AMINIR_150822_170.JPG: Cusco A City Shaped Like a Puma Cusco, the holy Inka city, was the physical, political, and spiritual center of the Inka universe. Every aspect of the city reflected its cosmic importance. The city of Cusco is said to be in the shape of a puma. The puma symbolizes the power of the earth. The puma's head was the temple of Saqsaywaman. Two rivers outlined the body. The main plaza, Hawkaypata, was in the belly. High-ranking persons lived within the outline of the puma. All others lived outside it.
35. AMINIR_150822_178.JPG: Hanan and Hurin Upper and Lower Cusco was organized in two halves: hanan (upper) and hurin (lower). Each half was also divided in two. Each quarter was related to one of the four regions of the empire.
36. AMINIR_150822_181.JPG: Inka double-sided figurine (front and back), AD 1470–1532, Lima, Peru. Silver-copper alloy
37. AMINIR_150822_190.JPG: Hawkaypata The Main Plaza Cusco was the center of the Inka universe. Hawkaypata was the center of Cusco. Dedicated to the creator god Tiqzi Wiracocha, this grand open space was used for ritual and ceremony. The Hawkaypata was filled with white sand from the Pacific coast. Offerings of gold, silver, and precious shell were buried in the sand during religious ceremonies. The four main roads of the Qhapaq Ñan ran from the four sides of Hawkaypata into the four regions of Tawantinsuyu.
38. AMINIR_150822_194.JPG: Shell beads, AD 1000–1500, Tembladera, Cajamarca region, Peru. Spondylus princeps shell.
39. AMINIR_150822_197.JPG: Pre-Inka–style chest ornament, AD 1000–1500, Cusco, Peru. Gold-silver-copper alloy. This gold ornament bears the official symbol of Cusco.
40. AMINIR_150822_201.JPG: The Qorikancha Temple of the Sun The Qorikancha (golden enclosure) was the religious center of the empire. Dedicated to the sun, it was the most important temple in Tawantinsuyu. Its walls were covered in gold and visible throughout the Cusco Valley. From the Qorikancha, 41 ceque lines (sacred pathways) linked the temple to wakas (holy sites) throughout the valley. Gold and silver offerings were left at the Qorikancha. These figurines may have been dressed in clothing to represent high-ranking Inka.
41. AMINIR_150822_209.JPG: Inka female figurine, AD 1470–1532, Coast of Peru. Gold-silver alloy. Gold and silver offerings were left at the Qorikancha. These figurines may have been dressed in clothing to represent high-ranking Inka.
42. AMINIR_150822_211.JPG: Inka female figurine, AD 1470–1532, Lima, Peru. Silver alloy. Inka male figurine, AD 1450–1532, Coast of Peru. Silver-copper alloy.
43. AMINIR_150822_216.JPG: Ica-Inka shell belt, AD 1450–1532. Peru. Spondylus princeps shell, camelid wool.
44. AMINIR_150822_218.JPG: Inka pendant, AD 1400–1500, Cusco region, Peru. Gold-silver-copper alloy.
45. AMINIR_150822_228.JPG: Dwellings Workers' Suburbs: Several neighborhoods housed workers who came to Cusco to give their labor to the state as a kind of tax (mit'a). When their service was done, they returned to their villages. In Tawantinsuyu, work was accompanied by the ritual sharing of chicha (corn beer). Royal Residences: In central Cusco, the panacas (royal families) of the Inka rulers lived in residences that the Spanish called palaces. Residences took the form of a kancha, a group of buildings surrounding a courtyard, all within an enclosing wall.
46. AMINIR_150822_235.JPG: Inka axe heads, AD 1450–1532. El Ángel, Ecuador and Río Perené, Peru. Stone.
47. AMINIR_150822_238.JPG: Saqsaywaman Upper Temple of the Sun Saqsaywaman occupied the head of Cusco's puma shape. Dedicated to Inti, the sun, this temple stood in hanan (upper) Cusco as the counterpart to the Qorikancha, the temple in hurin (lower) Cusco.
48. AMINIR_150822_249.JPG: The Empire Builders Between 1470 and 1532, three Inka rulers led ambitious military campaigns to expand Inka territory. The kingdom of Cusco became the empire Tawantinsuyu. Their goals were to acquire the resources of neighboring territories, and to bring order and religion to all the world, as Inti (the sun) had commanded of their ancestor Manco Capac.
49. AMINIR_150822_256.JPG: A Road for Integration Tawantinsuyu was made up of four suyus (regions), each with diverse populations, environments, and resources. With its network of roads, storehouses, religious sites, and administrative stations, the Qhapaq Ñan integrated the suyus into one empire. To acquire territory, Inka rulers employed various strategies, from war to diplomacy and marriage alliances. The Inka state provided security, goods, and services; conquered communities gave the empire allegiance and labor.
50. AMINIR_150822_272.JPG: Building the Road The Qhapaq Ñan is an engineering marvel: 40,000 kilometers (nearly 25,000 miles) of roadway across grasslands, rainforest, desert, valleys, and mountains. Its builders did it all without wheeled carts, iron tools, or large work animals. Inka engineers tailored their design to the landscape, drawing upon the expert knowledge and labor of local populations.
51. AMINIR_150822_281.JPG: Mit'a and Ayni Labor and Reciprocity Mit'a was a labor tax. The head of every household under Inka rule had to work for the state for a period of time each year. The work could involve agriculture, road construction, military service, or other tasks. In exchange, the Inka state gave its citizens food and other goods. This exchange is rooted in ayni (reciprocity), the central code of Andean peoples. Ayni is based on the idea that members of a community support one another.
52. AMINIR_150822_288.JPG: Inka axe heads, AD 1450–1532. El Ángel, Ecuador and Río Perené, Peru. Stone.
53. AMINIR_150822_291.JPG: Inka paqcha (ritual vessel) in the form of a plowing tool and arybalo, AD 1470–1532. Peru. Ceramic.
54. AMINIR_150822_294.JPG: Inka jar with worker carrying arybalo, AD 1450–1532. Coast of Peru. Ceramic, paint.
55. AMINIR_150822_302.JPG: The Shapa Inka and His Court The Shapa Inka (ruler) was regarded as a god. When he traveled on the Qhapaq Ñan, he made it sacred. Servants brushed the road clean before him. When he was on the road, the full grandeur of the Inka state was on display. His entourage numbered several hundred people, including singers, dancers, guards, warriors, and servants.
56. AMINIR_150822_306.JPG: Expansion A Road for Religion Worship of Inti, the sun, was a driving force behind Inka conquest. The Inka saw themselves as bringing true religion to all the world, while the natural resources of conquered lands provided rich offerings to Inti. The Qhapaq Ñan made this holy work possible.
57. AMINIR_150822_310.JPG: Inka paqcha (ritual vessel), AD 1450–1532. Ecuador. Ceramic.
58. AMINIR_150822_313.JPG: Ushnus Altars of the Sun Ushnus were stone platforms that served as altars for worshipping Inti, the sun. The Inka constructed them throughout their empire. They represented Inka power in a conquered territory. On the upper platform, a priest would offer a sacred ceremonial drink to Inti -- usually chicha (corn beer) -- and pour out the liquid to return it to Pachamama (Mother Earth).
59. AMINIR_150822_321.JPG: Apachetas & Sayhua Offerings for Safe Travel Along the Qhapaq Ñan are sacred places, called apachetas, in the form of piles of stone. Here travelers leave offerings in thanks to the road, to Pachamama (Mother Earth), and to the apus (mountain gods) for protecting them during their journey. Offerings at apachetas could be as simple as a small stone or a few coca leaves, or highly sacred objects such as mullu (Spondylus princeps shells) or figurines of gold or silver. Even today, Andean people often carry items to leave at an apacheta.
60. AMINIR_150822_327.JPG: Bridges: Q'eswachaka Suspension Bridge The Q'eswachaka suspension bridge on the Apurímac River in Peru has been in use for 500 years. Made of grasses, vines, and other perishable materials, the bridge is rebuilt regularly. Villages join together to do the work, accompanied by rituals, music, dance, and feasting. Every chaka (bridge) on the Qhapaq Ñan was built to meet local conditions, using local resources and the knowledge of local people. The Q'eswachaka is the last surviving suspension bridge built with Inka techniques. Suspension technology is still being used around the world today to build bridges.
61. AMINIR_150822_340.JPG: Antisuyu Exotic and Forbidding Landscape Located in the upper Amazon, Antisuyu had a rainforest environment marked by heavy rainfall, high humidity, and lush vegetation. It offered many natural resources, especially coca, medicinal plants, gold, and exotic bird feathers. Antisuyu's rainforest diseases, and resistance by tribal peoples, made the region difficult to conquer.
62. AMINIR_150822_352.JPG: Suyus Chinchaysuyu Innovative Engineering and Valuable Resources Chinchaysuyu was the largest suyu and the empire's most important agricultural region. The territory covered much of modern-day Peru, Ecuador, and part of Colombia. The landscape featured large open valleys, deep canyons, high plateaus, coastal valleys, and deserts, giving road builders many challenges. Chinchaysuyu and Antisuyu together formed the hanan, or upper half, of Tawantinsuyu.
63. AMINIR_150822_362.JPG: Bridges: Q'eswachaka Suspension Bridge The Q'eswachaka suspension bridge on the Apurímac River in Peru has been in use for 500 years. Made of grasses, vines, and other perishable materials, the bridge is rebuilt regularly. Villages join together to do the work, accompanied by rituals, music, dance, and feasting. Every chaka (bridge) on the Qhapaq Ñan was built to meet local conditions, using local resources and the knowledge of local people. The Q'eswachaka is the last surviving suspension bridge built with Inka techniques. Suspension technology is still being used around the world today to build bridges.
64. AMINIR_150822_371.JPG: Chimú-Inka whistling bottle, AD 1400–1532. Lambayeque region, Peru. Ceramic. This bottle mimics the form of Inka bridges. The bird figure represents the chakacamayuc (bridge master).
65. AMINIR_150822_375.JPG: Paved section of the Inka Road with side walls and a water drainage canal, Colca Canyon, Peru, 2014.
66. AMINIR_150822_378.JPG: Paved section of the Inka road, Molleturo, Ecuador, 2005
67. AMINIR_150822_380.JPG: Inka road skirting Lake Junín, just south of Pumpu, a large Inka administrative center, Lake Junín, Peru, 2006.
68. AMINIR_150822_383.JPG: Mullu Mullu -- shells of the thorny oyster (Spondylus princeps) -- were sacred objects, symbolizing water and fertility. They are found only off the northern coast of Chinchaysuyu. The abundance or scarcity of mullu was a predictor of weather for the next 12 months. In times of drought, priests offered mullu to deities to ask for rain. Mullu were found at depths of 50 meters (165 feet). Obtaining these shells was difficult and dangerous, which made them rare and valuable.
69. AMINIR_150822_391.JPG: Inka llama figurine, AD 1450–1532. Trujillo, Peru. Spondylus princeps shell.
70. AMINIR_150822_395.JPG: Inka-Chincha jar with human face and corn feet, AD 1450–1532. Río Casma Valley, Peru. Silver alloy.
71. AMINIR_150822_398.JPG: Inka male figure with agricultural tool, AD 1450–1532. Trujillo, Peru. Gold-copper alloy.
72. AMINIR_150822_400.JPG: Corn A source of food, drink, and offerings, corn was highly prized by the Inka. They introduced the crop to every conquered territory and built agricultural terraces on mountainsides to make room for the many varieties. The most revered was a white corn called Mamasara (Mother Corn).
73. AMINIR_150822_406.JPG: Coca Leaf The coca plant is sacred to Andean people, who often make offerings of its leaves at holy sites. Adults chew coca leaves for energy while laboring, or to relieve altitude sickness and various other ailments. (Note that coca leaf is not cocaine.) The Inka state strictly controlled the production and distribution of coca, assigning teams of workers to tend and harvest the plant.
74. AMINIR_150822_412.JPG: Aymara model of coca plant, 1850–1950. Bolivia. Silver alloy.
75. AMINIR_150822_415.JPG: Stepped road, east flank of Machu Picchu, Peru, 1998
76. AMINIR_150822_417.JPG: Paved trail, east flank of Machu Picchu, Peru, 1998
77. AMINIR_150822_418.JPG: Colla dance belt, 1920–1928. Lake Titicaca, Bolivia. Parrot feathers, camelid wool, cotton.
78. AMINIR_150822_425.JPG: Machu Picchu Controlling Water Built as a residence for the Inka ruler Pachacutic, Machu Picchu stands on a high mountain ridge at the edge of Antisuyu. It has survived for centuries, thanks to ingenious methods for managing water. Heavy rainfall from December to March can cause landslides and erosion. Inka engineers devised ways to channel water where it was needed and to divert runoff away from roads and buildings.
79. AMINIR_150822_434.JPG: Machu Picchu and Huayna Picchu mountain, Machu Picchu, Peru, 2012
80. AMINIR_150822_437.JPG: Machu Picchu is a well-known icon of the Inka Empire. Clever engineering has enabled it to survive more than 500 years of torrential rainfall.
81. AMINIR_150822_439.JPG: Medicinal Plants State and village healers harvested medicinal plants from the rainforest. The best-known of these is the quina tree, whose bark contains quinine, a cure for malaria.
82. AMINIR_150822_443.JPG: Quechua medicine cup, 1930–1940. Cochabamba Department, Bolivia. Ceramic, paint.
83. AMINIR_150822_445.JPG: Inka medicine spoon, AD 1450–1532. Peru. Ceramic, paint.
84. AMINIR_150822_449.JPG: Colonial Inka qero (cup), (front and back), AD 1550–1800. Cusco region, Peru. Wood, resin, pigment. The flora and fauna of the rainforest embellish this Inka cup.
85. AMINIR_150822_455.JPG: Quechua braided ropes, 1900–1950. Huancavelica region, Peru. Unspun camelid wool. Llama harnesses are made from llama wool.
86. AMINIR_150822_463.JPG: Llamas for Transport Collasuyu's great herds of llamas and alpacas provided wool, meat, and, most importantly, transport. At harvest time, the road was especially busy with llama caravans. Before a caravan departed, the lead animal was blessed, and every llama was decorated. Wool The wool of llamas, alpacas, and vicuñas was woven into a variety of textiles. From high-ranking Inka to workers and soldiers, almost everyone in Tawantinsuyu wore wool.
87. AMINIR_150822_466.JPG: Salt Collasuyu was a major producer of salt for the empire. The state controlled its extraction and distribution, dedicating special routes for its transportation. Collasuyu produced two types of salt: white salt, harvested from salt flats, and black salt, extracted in blocks from mines.
88. AMINIR_150822_473.JPG: Potatoes Andeans have cultivated potatoes for thousands of years, domesticating hundreds of varieties that thrive in almost any climate. The Cochabamba region exported enormous quantities throughout Tawantinsuyu. Potatoes sustained the empire's rapidly growing population, even when other crops failed.
89. AMINIR_150822_478.JPG: Precious Metals Gold and Silver Access to gold and silver mines was a major goal of Inka expansion into Collasuyu. Symbolic of the sun and the moon, these metals were sacred, and their use was restricted to religious purposes. Gold and silver objects were used as offerings or worn by Inka rulers, priests, and members of the royal family. Copper and Bronze Long before the Inka became powerful, Andean cultures discovered bronze, which is made from copper mixed with other metals. The people of Collasuyu perfected a tin-bronze alloy that was harder than iron. The Inka treasured this metal, using it for axes and other tools.
90. AMINIR_150822_482.JPG: Inka bowl, AD 1470–1532. Chimbote, Peru. Copper.
91. AMINIR_150822_485.JPG: Chimú–Inka tumi (ritual knife), AD 1300–1500. Chan Chan, Peru. Copper.
92. AMINIR_150822_487.JPG: Inka armbands, AD 1470–1532. Rio Casma Valley, Peru. Silver-copper alloy.
93. AMINIR_150822_489.JPG: Inka ornaments with human figure design, AD 1470–1532. Nazca region, Peru. Gold.
94. AMINIR_150822_497.JPG: Inka jar in the form of a worker carrying an arybalo, AD 1500–1600. North coast of Peru. Ceramic, paint.
95. AMINIR_150822_505.JPG: Tampus Accommodations for Travelers Travelers on the Qhapaq Ñan could spend the night at way stations called tampus. Thousands of these "inns" dotted the roads that crossed the empire. They were built approximately 20 to 25 kilometers (12 to 15 miles) apart, roughly a day's journey on foot.
96. AMINIR_150822_507.JPG: Tampu Pariachuco, alongside the Inka road near Tauli, Peru, 2006
97. AMINIR_150822_513.JPG: A tampu, Raqchi, Peru, 2014
98. AMINIR_150822_516.JPG: Collasuyu High Plains and Herds The second-largest suyu in the empire, Collasuyu covered southern Peru and parts of Bolivia, Argentina, and Chile. Colla means "high plain." Its extensive grassland was ideal for llama and alpaca herding. The region was also a source of salt, potatoes, gold, silver, and copper. Collasuyu and Contisuyu together formed the hurin, or lower half, of Tawantinsuyu.
99. AMINIR_150822_524.JPG: Inka coca bag with llama designs, AD 1450–1532. South coast of Peru. Cotton.
100. AMINIR_150822_526.JPG: Cotton A highly coveted wild cotton grew in the coastal valleys of Contisuyu. Strong, thick, resilient, and durable, it was used to make sturdy textiles, blankets, fishing nets, and ropes. The Inka state closely controlled its production, distribution, and consumption. The wild cotton of Contisuyu changes color as the plant matures, producing shades of white, tan, brown, and gray.
101. AMINIR_150822_529.JPG: Contisuyu The Road to the Sea Contisuyu, the smallest of the four suyus, gave the Inka important resources from the sea. Here, breathtaking vertical slopes rise from sea level to the heights of the western Andes. A land of dramatic peaks, volcanoes, and deep gorges, Contisuyu presented complex problems for Inka engineers.
102. AMINIR_150822_534.JPG: A Road for Administration Qhapaq Ñan means "the Way of the Lord." The road was reserved for state business. The Inka bureaucracy used the Qhapaq Ñan to mobilize the labor force, transport raw materials and crops across the empire, and serve the state's many other needs -- including military campaigns to conquer territory and quell rebellions. Chaskis -- Messengers News traveled fast along the Qhapaq Ñan. Chaskis (official messengers) carried khipus (string devices for recording information), verbal messages, and small packages across the empire. They ran in a relay system, trading messages and goods at stations called chaskiwasis, which stood approximately 10 to 15 kilometers (5 to 7 miles) apart.
103. AMINIR_150822_537.JPG: Inka paqcha (ritual vessel) in the form of a sandaled foot, AD 1450–1532. Lambayeque region, Peru. Ceramic.
104. AMINIR_150822_543.JPG: Khipus Communications The Inka never developed a writing system. Instead, officials used khipus, devices made of colored strings knotted in various ways. Khipus were used to record census data, the movement of goods and people throughout the empire, and religious and military information. The officials who managed the khipus were known as khipucamayucs.
105. AMINIR_150822_545.JPG: Inka khipu, AD 1400–1600. Nazca region, Peru. Cotton, camelid wool.
106. AMINIR_150822_549.JPG: Inka khipu, AD 1400–1600. Nazca region, Peru. Cotton, camelid wool.
107. AMINIR_150822_554.JPG: Colcas Storehouses for an Empire Surplus food, clothing, raw materials, and other items were kept in state storage facilities called colcas. Colcas were part of the Inka system of collecting food and goods from every suyu and redistributing them among the empire's inhabitants. This system guaranteed the survival of the empire and its people in years when harvests were poor.
108. AMINIR_150822_564.JPG: Why Did the Empire Fall? Tawantinsuyu was becoming fragile. Various conquered peoples were rising in revolt. Smallpox swept into the region, killing many, including Huayna Capac, the eleventh Shapa Inka. This set off a war between his sons, Atahualpa and Huascar. Atahualpa won the power struggle in 1532, just as the Spanish arrived.
109. AMINIR_150822_573.JPG: The Murder of Atahualpa Atahualpa and the Spanish adventurer Francisco Pizarro met face to face in 1532. Backed by Native rebels from the north, Pizarro and his men took Atahualpa hostage and demanded a huge ransom in gold and silver. To pay it, the Inka stripped their temples and palaces of precious metal, enough to fill one room with gold and two rooms with silver. After receiving the ransom, Pizarro had Atahualpa strangled. Tawantinsuyu was in Spanish hands in July 1533.
110. AMINIR_150822_576.JPG: Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala (Quechua, ca. AD 1535–1616). The execution of Atahualpa, 1615.
111. AMINIR_150822_589.JPG: The Road to Conquest The Spanish Used the Qhapaq Ñan to Conquer Tawantinsuyu Built to give the Inka access to every corner of the empire, the Qhapaq Ñan gave the Spanish the same access. The Spanish established new cities and founded Lima as their colonial capital. Cusco was stripped of its power and remodeled with cathedrals, public halls, and houses built in the Spanish style. Many of its great buildings were destroyed.
112. AMINIR_150822_593.JPG: Quechua jar representing a bull, 1935–1945. Pucara, Peru. Ceramic, paint.
113. AMINIR_150822_596.JPG: New Animals and Crops The Spanish brought cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs into regions where llamas and alpacas traditionally grazed. The Spanish planted their imported crops in the most fertile areas, leaving poorer land for Andean people and displacing native crops.
114. AMINIR_150822_600.JPG: Wanka Quechua stirrups, 1880–1920. Huancayo and Ayacucho, Peru. Wood.
115. AMINIR_150822_602.JPG: Quechua figure of horse and rider, 1910–1940. Peru. Ceramic, paint. Quechua figure of man plowing with oxen, 1910–1940. Paracaya, Peru. Ceramic.
116. AMINIR_150822_605.JPG: Aymara sheep figurine, 1920–1950. La Paz, Bolivia. Silver, glass.
117. AMINIR_150822_607.JPG: Quechua head ornament for a mule, 1880–1920. Lake Titicaca, Peru. Sheep's wool, camelid wool.
118. AMINIR_150822_618.JPG: Impact Spanish invaders destroyed the system that maintained the empire and its road. They imposed a new religion and tried to erase traditions. They imported plants and animals that altered the environment. Within 100 years, nearly 80 percent of the Native population died of European diseases. The Spanish admired the Qhapaq Ñan, but soon many of its roads were abandoned, destroyed, or transformed. Heavy-footed horses and wheeled carts damaged roads built for foot traffic and llamas. Maintenance declined. Erosion took its toll.
119. AMINIR_150822_625.JPG: Pillaging the Sacred Mountains Spanish explorers were driven by a thirst for gold and silver. The mountains of Tawantinsuyu were rich with mines, which soon became Spain's principal source of wealth. The Spanish manipulated the mit'a system, compelling indigenous people to provide labor. Unlike the Inka, the Spanish gave nothing in return. Many people died working these dangerous mines.
120. AMINIR_150822_633.JPG: The Spanish practiced ayni (reciprocity) only to benefit themselves. Native people described their relationship with Europeans as a "funnel law -- the narrow end was for the Indians and the wide end for the whites."
121. AMINIR_150822_646.JPG: It is a sad thing to reflect that these idol-worshipping Inkas should have had such wisdom in knowing how to govern and preserve these far-flung lands, and that we Christians have destroyed so many kingdoms. -- Pedro de Cieza de León, 1553
122. AMINIR_150822_653.JPG: Invasion The Colonial Road When Spanish conquistadors reached Tawantinsuyu in 1532, the Qhapaq Ñan gave them easy access to the empire. Already weakened by civil war and smallpox, the Inka Empire fell. Under Spanish rule, the Qhapaq Ñan rapidly deteriorated. The Spanish brought new diseases, animals, and plants, and introduced new beliefs and laws, all of which transformed the lives of Andean peoples, their land, and their road.
123. AMINIR_150822_657.JPG: Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala (Quechua, ca. AD 1535–1616). Voyages of discovery of the New World, 1615.
124. AMINIR_150822_660.JPG: The Inka built roads everywhere to unite the villages of the world. The road is a rope that binds communities and allows us to live as one family. -- Panfilo Sulca (Quechua), Sarhua, Ayacucho, Peru, 2010
125. AMINIR_150822_662.JPG: Carved paqcha (ritual vessel) with rainforest images, 1700–1800. Cusco, Peru. Wood.
126. AMINIR_150822_665.JPG: Aymara powder horn, 1880–1920. Bolivia. Copper–nickel alloy. This powder horn was a gift of the Plurinational State of Bolivia and President Evo Morales, presented on the occasion of his visit to the National Museum of the American Indian in 2008.
127. AMINIR_150822_671.JPG: Resistance and Adaptation Though Spain dismantled their government and religious systems, Andeans found ways to keep their traditions alive. They continued to speak the Quechua and Aymara languages. They adopted the Catholic religion but blended its customs with older beliefs. Apachetas (sites for offerings) along the Qhapaq Ñan remained, with the addition of a Catholic cross.
128. AMINIR_150822_677.JPG: Virgilio Oré (Quechua), Noah's Ark, (front and back), 2008. Ayacucho Region, Peru. Ceramic.
129. AMINIR_150822_680.JPG: Quechua roof ornament in the shape of a church, 1971–1972. Quinua, Peru. Ceramic, paint.
130. AMINIR_150822_683.JPG: Quechua cross pendant, 1900–1930. Cusco, Peru. Copper alloy, glass.
131. AMINIR_150822_685.JPG: Andean people blended Catholicism with their older beliefs. Sometimes this was simply a matter of reassigning meaning -- an apu (mountain spirit) became Christ and Pachamama (Mother Earth) became the Virgin Mary.
132. AMINIR_150822_687.JPG: Quechua figurine of a llama carrying bars of tin, 1900–1930. Ayacucho, Peru. Silver. Wanka Quechua llama figurine, 1900–1930. Ayacucho, Peru. Silver alloy.
133. AMINIR_150822_695.JPG: After the conquest, Inka weavers continued to weave fine textiles. This manta was made for a woman of high social status. The weaving and design are Andean, but Spanish elements (lace patterns and human figures in Spanish dress) blend with abstract Inka symbols called tucapus, emblems of rank.
134. AMINIR_150822_711.JPG: Tawantinsuyu Today The Road Links Us to the Past Descendants of the Inka today live in Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile, Argentina, and Colombia. Many maintain Inka traditions in their languages, arts, celebrations, and religion. Millions speak Quechua and Aymara. Ayni (reciprocity) is still a way of life. Reverence for Pachamama (Mother Earth) remains strong. Although much of the Qhapaq Ñan has disappeared, approximately 500 communities still use parts of it. The road continues to link people -- past and present -- - physically and spiritually.
135. AMINIR_150822_722.JPG: Celebrations Quechua people throughout the Andes proudly cherish their Inka heritage. Throughout the year festivals and celebrations that blend Inka and Catholic traditions fill towns, villages, and valleys with sound, movement, and color. Inti Raymi Honoring Inti, the sun, this Inka festival survives in many parts of the Andes, especially in Cusco. It occurs at the winter solstice (June in the Southern Hemisphere) and involves rituals, processions, colorful costumes, dancing, and feasting. Q'oylluriti Honoring the Pleiades, the constellation of stars that Andeans call Colca, this age-old festival unfolds on the slopes of Sinakara Mountain in the Peruvian Andes. Three days of music, dance, ritual, and pilgrimage mark the winter solstice and the Pleiades' return to the night sky.
136. AMINIR_150822_727.JPG: A dancer at a parade during the Corpus Christi festival, Cusco, Peru, 2014 Dancers in a parade during the Corpus Christi festival, Cusco, Peru, 2014.
137. AMINIR_150822_730.JPG: The Shapa Inka's wife on her throne, Inti Raymi procession, Cusco, Peru, 2014.
138. AMINIR_150822_732.JPG: Fernando Hugo Barragán Sandi (Quechua), panpipes, 2005–2007. Buenos Aires province, Argentina. Bamboo, yarn.
139. AMINIR_150822_738.JPG: Ceremonies and Rituals Throughout the Andes, the spiritual world continues to pervade daily life. Rituals are performed to ask for blessing, protection, and healing. These modern objects, similar to those from Inka times, are still used in ceremonies and on long journeys.
140. AMINIR_150822_745.JPG: Llama Herding and Caravans Llama caravans still travel the Inka Road, but their numbers are fewer. Herdsmen lead caravans down from the highlands during the dry season, carrying wool, chuñu (freeze-dried potatoes), and charki (dried meat) to trade for fruits and vegetables in the valleys.
141. AMINIR_150822_748.JPG: Embroidered llama pectoral, 1920–1950. Central highland, Peru. Cotton.
142. AMINIR_150822_751.JPG: Ayni Survives Villages of indigenous people are scattered throughout the Andes. In this rugged landscape, the age-old concept of ayni (reciprocity) is very much alive. Communities work together for the common good.
143. AMINIR_150822_759.JPG: Q'eswachaka Suspension Bridge The Q'eswachaka suspension bridge has stretched across Peru's Apurímac River for more than 500 years. Using traditional methods and plant materials, local people periodically rebuild the 28-meter (92-foot) span. It is the last surviving suspension bridge constructed with Inka techniques. Reconstruction takes place in early June, involving villages on both sides of the river. At each end, a community leader acts as "bridge master." This specialized, highly respected job as qollana is usually passed from father to son.
144. AMINIR_150822_761.JPG: Ayni Today Ayni and the Qhapaq Ñan The Qhapaq Ñan is still alive. Rural communities maintain portions of it, as they have since Inka times, in the spirit of ayni (reciprocity). A qollana (community leader) organizes teams to do the work for the benefit of the entire community.
145. AMINIR_150822_776.JPG: The Inka Empire Changed the World The Inka Empire has touched every one of us. What happened in Tawantinsuyu 500 years ago has shaped the world we live in. The Spanish invaders were looking for Inka gold, but Tawantinsuyu held other treasures that have been more important.
146. AMINIR_150822_779.JPG: Potatoes, Corn, Quinoa Andean foods changed the eating habits of the world. Corn, potatoes, and quinoa originated in the Andes but now grow everywhere. Potatoes thrived in cooler climates, such as northern Europe and the Himalayas, saving millions from starvation in bleak winters. The outside world has recently discovered quinoa, and the high demand is now depriving Andeans of a traditional food.
147. AMINIR_150822_784.JPG: Silver Silver from the mines at Potosí, in present-day Bolivia, made Spain the richest nation on earth in the 1500s and 1600s. This wealth bankrolled Spanish expeditions of conquest around the world, a long series of wars in Europe, and a "golden age" of the arts in Spain. European history would be very different without Andean silver.
148. AMINIR_150822_787.JPG: Quinine Andean people knew for thousands of years that the bark of the quina tree cured malaria. Catholic missionaries learned this in the 1600s, and quinine soon became a valuable export to Europe. It has saved countless lives.
149. AMINIR_150822_798.JPG: Engineered to Survive Portions of the Qhapaq Ñan have withstood the test of time better than modern roads. The road offers important lessons about sustainability, use of local materials, and building in harmony with the environment. Parts of the road have become the foundations of modern roads. Argentina's Route 40 and the Pan-American Highway, which extends through Peru and Chile, are built over the Inka Road.
150. AMINIR_150822_802.JPG: The Road to Life The Qhapaq Ñan survives as a reminder of an amazing past that still links communities. The power of this cultural continuity has helped indigenous communities endure hard times and oppression. Today, a revival of Andean traditions and the love of land and family strengthens the ties of indigenous Andeans to their Inka ancestors.
151. AMINIR_150822_808.JPG: Quechua man, Chawaytiri, Peru, 2014
152. AMINIR_150822_813.JPG: A man walks a stepped portion of the Qhapaq Ñan, Pisac, Peru, 2011
153. AMINIR_150822_820.JPG: A woman travels the road on the shores of Lake Titicaca near Pomata, Peru, 2006.
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2015 photos: Equipment this year: I mostly used my Fuji XS-1 camera but, depending on the event, I also used a Nikon D7000. I retired from the US Census Bureau in god-forsaken Suitland, Maryland on my 58th birthday in May. Yee ha! Trips this year: a quick trip to Florida. two Civil War Trust conferences (Raleigh, NC and Richmond, VA), and my 10th consecutive San Diego Comic-Con trip (including Los Angeles). Ego Strokes: Carolyn Cerbin used a Kevin Costner photo in her USA Today article. Miss DC pictures were used a few times in the Washington Post. Number of photos taken this year: just over 550,000.
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