BGuthrie Photos: DC -- Natl Museum of Natural History -- Hall of Human Origins

DC -- Natl Museum of Natural History -- Hall of Human Origins:

Bruce Guthrie Photos Home Page: [Click here] to go to Bruce Guthrie Photos home page.

Description of Pictures: The Kochs financed this exhibit, a large portion of which is dedicated to showing how humans can adjust to temperature change. The Kochs don't believe that global warming is happening and, even if it is, they figure that this exhibit proves that the human species can adjust to climate change. Ignoring all of the species that can't adjust, the problem is that humans can adjust to temperature changes over thousands of years. In geologic terms, the current round of climate change is happening in a blink of the eye and it's unlikely that humans or any other species will evolve quickly enough to naturally tolerate the changes.

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Copyrights: All pictures were taken by amateur photographer Bruce Guthrie (me!) who retains copyright on them. Free for non-commercial use with attribution. See the [Creative Commons] definition of what this means. "Photos (c) Bruce Guthrie" is fine for attribution. (Commercial use folks including AI scrapers can of course contact me.) Feel free to use in publications and pages with attribution but you don't have permission to sell the photos themselves. A free copy of any printed publication using any photographs is requested. Descriptive text, if any, is from a mixture of sources, quite frequently from signs at the location or from official web sites; copyrights, if any, are retained by their original owners.

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Specific picture descriptions: Photos above with "i" icons next to the bracketed sequence numbers (e.g. "[1] ") are described as follows:
1. SINHHO_140402_001.JPG: The David H. Koch Hall of Human Origins Travel back 6 million years to discover how our ancestors struggled to survive dramatic climate changes and, in the process, evolved the traits that make us human.
2. SINHHO_140402_009.JPG: Donors The David H. Koch Hall of Human Origins and the Human Origins Initiative are made possible through the generous support and partnership of the following individuals and organizations: * The Congress of the United States * David H. Koch * Dr. Peter Buck * Charles E. Dern * Mr. and Mrs. Jeffery Meyer * National Geographic Society * National Science Foundation * The Ruth and Vernon Taylor Foundation, Montana
3. SINHHO_140402_034.JPG: What Does It Mean to be Human? What makes us unique -- different from all other primates? The characteristics at right are part of the rich mosaic of physical traits and behaviors that make us human. They did not evolve all at once. It took about 6 million years for our human traits to accumulate. * 6 million years ago -- Walking upright on short legs * 2.6 million years ago -- Making tools and eating meat from large animals * 1.8 million years ago -- Longer legs and travel to new regions * 800,000 years ago -- Gathering at the hearth * 500,000 years ago -- Rapid increase in brain size * 250,000 years ago -- Communicating with symbols * 160,000 years ago -- Longer childhood and adolescence * 10,500 years ago -- Plant and animal domestication * By 2007 -- More humans in cities than in rural areas
4. SINHHO_140402_055.JPG: Lucy: At Home in Two Worlds: Lucy is the nickname given by scientists to this 3.2 million-year-old early human skeleton found in what is now Ethiopia. Lucy walked upright on the ground and also climbed trees. Grasslands, shrublands, forests, and other habitats existed in Lucy's area. In general, the climate was cooler and wetter than it is today. Because Lucy could walk and climb trees, she and other members of her species (Austraopithecus afarensis) were able to use resources from different environments.
5. SINHHO_140402_058.JPG: Adjusting to Changing Environments: Lucy's species, Australopithecus afarensis, survived for more than 900,000 years -- over four times as long as our own species has been around. For at least 400,000 years, members of Lucy's species lived at Hadar, Ethiopia. The vegetation changed repeatedly during that period as the climate fluctuated between wet and dry, and cool and warm. How Do We Know Hadar's Environment Changed? Fossil pollen and fossil animals provide direct evidence of changing habitats at Hadar between 3.4 and 2.95 million years ago. They enable scientists to reconstruct a story of climate change during the period when Lucy and her species lived there.
6. SINHHO_140402_073.JPG: Humans Evolved in Response to a Changing World From http://www.greenpeace.org/usa/en/campaigns/global-warming-and-energy/polluterwatch/koch-industries/ Koch Industries: Secretly Funding the Climate Denial Machine The Koch Brothers: Funding $67,042,064 to groups denying climate change since 1997. Billionaire oilman David Koch used to joke that Koch Industries was "the biggest company you've never heard of." Now the shroud of secrecy has thankfully been lifted, revealing the $67 million that he and his brother Charles have quietly funneled to climate-denial front groups that are working to delay policies and regulations aimed at stopping global warming, most of which are part of the State Policy Network. Today, the Kochs are being watched as a prime example of the corporate takeover of government. Their funding and co-opting of the Tea Party movement is now well documented. Charles G. Koch and David H. Koch have a vested interest in delaying climate action: they've made billions from their ownership and control of Koch Industries, an oil corporation that is the second largest privately-held company in America (which also happens to have an especially poor environmental record). It's timely that more people are now aware of Charles and David Koch and just what they're up to. A growing awareness of these oil billionaires' destructive agenda has led to increased scrutiny and resistance from people and organizations all over the United States. We continue to expose the connections between climate denial front groups and the secretive billionaires who are funding their efforts.
7. SINHHO_140402_109.JPG: How Do We Know Climates Changed? Among the major sources of evidence are sediment layers like these, found in a cliff bordering the Mediterranean Sea. They record sediment deposits from Africa's Nile River. The dark bands represent wet times, the light band dry times. The alternating bands reflect major shifts in Africa's climate every several thousand years.
8. SINHHO_140402_117.JPG: Changing Body Shapes and Sizes
9. SINHHO_140402_122.JPG: Short bodies, long guts By six million years ago... The earliest human species were small in size and usually had long arms and short legs. Their plant-based diet required a large digestive tract. A wide rib cage made room for the stomach, intestines, and other organs that break down food.
10. SINHHO_140402_124.JPG: The Shrinking Human Gut Early humans ate mainly plants, which take a longer time to digest than meat does. Long digestive tracts helped process this food. Modern humans eat a diet that includes meat and cooked foods. We can process these foods efficiently with a shorter digestive tract.
11. SINHHO_140402_127.JPG: Tall bodies, short guts By 1.9 million years ago As some early humans adapted to hot climates, they evolved narrow bodied that helped them stay cool. Long legs enabled them to travel longer distances. Eating meat and other foods that could be quickly digested led to a smaller digestive tract, making more energy available for tall bodies and large brains.
12. SINHHO_140402_131.JPG: Beyond Africa For the first several million years of human evolution, early humans lived only in Africa. By about 1.8 million years ago, they began to spread into other parts of the world. There they encountered new environments and new challenges. Compare the range of these two early human species.
13. SINHHO_140402_135.JPG: Compact bodies, short guns By 400,000 years ago When early humans spread to colder climates, their body shapes evolved in ways that helped them stay warm. Short, wide bodies conserved heat. Early humans continued to depend on both raw meat and cooked food, both of which could be efficiently processed in a short digestive tract.
14. SINHHO_140402_137.JPG: Figure Out A Neanderthal's Height A single fossil leg bone provides enough information for scientists to estimate the overall height of an early human individual. Measure the lengths of these Neanderthal thing bones, then find out how tall the individuals were.
15. SINHHO_140402_173.JPG: Adapted to Hot Climates This is the skeleton of an eight- to nine-year-old Homo erectus boy who lived in East Africa about 1.6 million years ago. The pelvis shows he was male. His teeth tell his age. The boy was 1.6m (5ft 3in) tall and weighed 48 kg (106lb). If he had reached adulthood, he might have grown to nearly 1.85 m (6ft). His tall, lean body was well adapted to hot, dry environments. Narrow body: Notice how narrow the pelvis of this species was compared to that of the Neanderthal at far right. The slender body shape helped keep the body cool, a big advantage in hot climates. Long legs: Compare the lower and upper leg bones on this skeleton. Then do the same with the Neanderthal's leg bones. The lower legs of Homo erectus were longer, a feature that helped dissipate heat.
16. SINHHO_140402_183.JPG: Adapted to Cold Climates How does your body compare with this Neanderthal skeleton? An average adult male Neanderthal stood only about 1.63m (5ft 4in) tall. That's not much taller than the skeleton of the eight- to nine-year-old Homo erectus boy at far left. Neanderthals of Europe, who had evolved by about 200,000 years ago, had to endure winter cold and even ice ages. Their short broad bodies were well adapted to these challenging climates. Broad body: A short, broad body shape helps to retain heat, which is useful in cold environments like those inhabited by Neanderthals. Short legs: The lower leg bones in this Neanderthal skeleton are short compared to the upper leg bones, a feature that reduced heat loss. Compare them with those of the Homo erectus skeleton at far left.
17. SINHHO_140402_185.JPG: Bodies Adapted to Diverse Climates and Diets: As early humans spread to different environments, they evolved body shapes that helped them survive in hot and cold climates. Changing diets also led to changes in body shape. The bodies of early humans were adapted to very active lifestyles. Their bones were thicker and stronger than ours. Starting about 50,000 years ago, as a result of less physically demanding lifestyles, humans evolved bones that were sleeker and weaker.
18. SINHHO_140402_199.JPG: Gather around the Fire: This male homo heidelbergensis lived in a social group that hunted large animals and shared food with each other. They also controlled fire and built shelters. These social and behavioral skills enabled them to endure several ice ages in Europe.
19. SINHHO_140402_212.JPG: Brain and body size increase From 2 million - 800,000 years ago During this time period early humans spread to new regions, encountering many new environments on different continents. These challenges, along with an increase in body size, led to an increase in brain size.
20. SINHHO_140402_216.JPG: Brain size increases rapidly From 800,000-200,000 years ago Human brain size evolved most rapidly during a time of dramatic climate change. Larger, more complex brains enabled early humans of this time period to interact with each other and with their surroundings in new and different ways. As the environment became more unpredictable, bigger brains helped our ancestors survive.
21. SINHHO_140402_227.JPG: Why the sudden increase in brain size? Changing climate: This curve shows how Earth's climate has fluctuated over the past 3 million years. Notice how much the fluctuations increased between 800,000 and 200,000 years ago. Expanding brain size: This curve shows how brain size increased over the past 3 million years -- especially between 800,000 and 200,000 years ago. A large brain capable of processing new information was a big advantage during times of dramatic climate change.
22. SINHHO_140402_247.JPG: Scientists found this skeleton of a two-year-old Neanderthal lying on its back in a deep burial put inside a cave, with a slab of limestone at the top of the head.
23. SINHHO_140402_250.JPG: Growing Up: These two young children, born about 3 million years apart, grew up at very different rates. The photo shows a three-year-old Australopithecus afarensis who grew at a rate similar to that of a chimpanzee. The skeleton is from a two-year-old Neanderthal who grew at a rate similar to that of modern humans, with a long childhood. As childhood lengthened, parents devoted more time and energy to caring for the young.
24. SINHHO_140402_264.JPG: Meet Sahelanthropus tchadensis One of the earliest members of the human family This male's small canine teeth -- one of the first human traits -- distinguished it from other apes. Most male primates have long canine teeth that they use to threaten and harm other males. There may have been less competition among Sahelanthropus males, or perhaps males expressed aggression in other ways.
25. SINHHO_140402_279.JPG: Meet Austalopithecus africanus Not predator, but prey Often found alongside animal bones, Austalopithecus africanus was once considered a "killer ape." Now we know that members of this early human species were sometimes eaten by predators. Living together in groups helped these early humans protect themselves. Do you think this individual is smiling... or afraid?
26. SINHHO_140402_284.JPG: Meet Australopithecus afarensis Survived for almost 900,000 years This adult male had a flat nose, strongly projecting lower face, and other apelike features. He did not have a large brain or know how to make stone tools. By Australopithecus afarensis could walk upright, a trait that helped this early human species find food and other resources when environments were changing.
27. SINHHO_140402_299.JPG: Eagle talon marks
28. SINHHO_140402_302.JPG: Eagle attack: Look closely for the puncture marks at the bottom of the eye sockets. They provide telltale evidence that an eagle attacked this three-year-old child. The marks are like those made by the sharp talons and beaks of eagles when they attack nonhuman primates in Africa today.
29. SINHHO_140402_307.JPG: Crocodile bite: Do you see the tooth marks on this ankle bone? Their shape and pattern are similar to those made by modern crocodiles. A lake with crocodiles was located not far from where this early human lived. He or she may have been drinking from the lake at the wrong time.
30. SINHHO_140402_327.JPG: Vitamin overdose: An outer layer of abnormal bone on this female's thigh shows evidence of bleeding just before death. After consulting doctors and accounts of wilderness explorers, researchers concluded that an overdose of vitamin A -- perhaps from eating a carnivore's liver, which concentrates vitamin A -- caused the bleeding and her death.
31. SINHHO_140402_333.JPG: Boundry [sic] Between abnormal bone (outer ring) and normal bone (inner ring)
32. SINHHO_140402_351.JPG: Blow to the head: At a young age, this Neanderthal experienced a crushing blow to his head. It damaged the left eye socket and the brain area that controls the right side of the body, leading to a withered right arm. Nevertheless, he lived until 35-45 years of age. His group must have looked after him.
33. SINHHO_140402_360.JPG: Meet Paranthropus boisei Versatile eater This male's large cheek bones supported powerful chewing muscles. Other muscles extended from his jaw to the ridge at the top of the head. Paranthropus boisei commonly ate fruit and other soft foods. But these early humans were also able to crush and grind tough plant foods during difficult times.
34. SINHHO_140402_367.JPG: Meet Homo erectus Longest-lived member of the human family tree Like others of her species, this female had a large braincase and more prominent nose than earlier species. Homo erectus depended on its large brain to make tools, adjust to new habitats, and care for the old and weak. The species survived more than nine times longer than our own species has been around.
35. SINHHO_140402_373.JPG: Meet Homo neanderstalensis A nose for the cold Like other Neanderthals, this male had a large nose that warmed and humidified cold, dry air and helped him survive in cold climates. Neanderthals may have been the first species to speak and bury their dead. They communicated with symbols by altering objects and sometimes even their own appearance.
36. SINHHO_140402_382.JPG: Meet Homo heidelbergensis Ancestor of modern humans European populations of this early human species were the ancestors of Neanderthals. African populations probably gave rise to our own species. Among the first species to inhabit Europe's cold latitudes, Homo heidelbergensis hunted large animals and built simple shelters from wood and rocks. Notice this older male's worn teeth and huge brow ridges.
37. SINHHO_140402_391.JPG: A Remarkable Discovery This female fossil skeleton was found in 2003. She belongs to a small species that inhabited the isolated island of Flores, Indonesia, until about 17,000 years ago. Scientists named the species Homo floresiensis after the island. Because of the fossil's tiny size, she was nicknamed "Hobbit." Although this individual is an adult, she is only a little over 1 m (3.3 ft) tall. Her brain is about one-third the size of a modern human's.
38. SINHHO_140402_395.JPG: Meet Homo floresiensis Became extinct just 17,000 years ago This female's head, like the rest of her body, was unusually small. Her brain was about a third the size of ours, but her species controlled fire, made tools, and hunted a variety of animals. The small stature of Homo foresiensis may have helped the species survive on an island with limited resources.
39. SINHHO_140402_410.JPG: Homo floresiensis Danger! Just 17,000 years ago, Homo floresiensis struggled for survival on a small Indonesian island> The species' tiny size enabled it to cope with limited resources, but made it vulnerable to large predators such as Komodo dragons. Meanwhile, our own species was expanding throughout the world.
40. SINHHO_140402_422.JPG: Homo neanderthalensis Learning to survive With an awl, a female Neanderthal pokes holes in an animal hide. She will use strips of animal tissue to lace together a loose-fitting garment. Like a modern human child, her curious two-year-old learns as he watches. Although stronger and brawnier, Neanderthals were like us in many ways.
41. SINHHO_140402_435.JPG: Meet the Artist Artist John Gurche used the latest forensic techniques, fossil discoveries, and 20 years of experience to create the lifelike reconstructions of early humans on display here. The painstaking process required a detailed knowledge of human and ape anatomy. It took Gurche 2-1/2 years to complete these eight busts.
42. SINHHO_140402_438.JPG: Humans Express Themselves From pigments to printing presses, symbols changed the way humans lived and provided new ways to cope with an unpredictable world. Modern humans used color, words, and sound to produce the artifacts you see here. The ability to plan, record information, and communicate helped humans survive as climates fluctuated strongly. Ultimately, words and symbols led to language and the richness of modern human life.
43. SINHHO_140402_450.JPG: Life and Death in a Changing World: Modern Humans: Modern humans evolved in Africa and spread to areas worldwide, including those occupied by Neanderthals. We evolved many characteristics that enabled us to disperse widely and survive in the many different habitats we encountered.
44. SINHHO_140402_453.JPG: Two Species, One Survivor: Modern humans (Homo sapiens) are closely related to Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis). Between 500,000 and 200,000 years ago, modern humans and Neanderthals gradually evolved from a common ancestor. We shared many characteristics and responded to environmental challenges in similar ways. Yey by 28,000 years ago, Neanderthals became extinct. We are still here.
45. SINHHO_140402_457.JPG: Extinction! Neanderthals survived tens of thousands of years of ice ages and climate fluctuations. But during one very cold period, modern humans spread across Europe. Their presence may have prevented Neanderthals from expanding back into areas they once favored. Over just a few thousand years, Neanderthal numbers dwindled to extinction.
46. SINHHO_140402_464.JPG: Neanderthals Neanderthals evolved in Europe and spread to Asia. They had many characteristics that helped them survive in cold climates and respond to environmental uncertainty. During extreme cold spells, they moved to warmer parts of Europe and Asia.
47. SINHHO_140402_473.JPG: Changing Climates in Europe During the time when Neanderthals evolved in Europe, global climates fluctuated dramatically between warm and cold.
48. SINHHO_140402_477.JPG: (1) 59,000-48,000 years ago: Neanderthals were widespread before modern humans arrived in Europe.
49. SINHHO_140402_481.JPG: (2) 38,000-34,000 years ago: During a prolonged cold period, Neanderthals moved to southern regions. Modern humans moved into Europe.
50. SINHHO_140402_485.JPG: (3) 30,000-26,000 years ago: Neanderthals became extinct. Modern humans spread across more of Europe.
51. SINHHO_140402_495.JPG: (1) 200,000-100,000 years ago: Modern humans evolved in East Africa and spread around the continent.
52. SINHHO_140402_498.JPG: (2) 30,000 years ago: Near the time when Neanderthals became extinct, modern humans had spread throughout much of the world.
53. SINHHO_140402_501.JPG: Changing Climates in Africa: Around 200,000 years ago, when modern humans evolved in Africa, climates fluctuated dramatically between moist and dry.
54. SINHHO_140402_505.JPG: Modern Humans: Modern humans evolved in Africa and spread to areas worldwide, including those occupied by Neanderthals. We evolved many characteristics that enabled us to disperse widely and survive in the many different habitats we encountered.
55. SINHHO_140402_508.JPG: Survival! Modern humans who moved into Europe and beyond initially had bodied adapted to warm African climates. Yet we were able to survive in cold, harsh environments. Innovative tools, clothing, and creative ways of planning and interacting enabled us to adjust to diverse surroundings. Modern humans not only survived, we expanded worldwide.
56. SINHHO_140402_513.JPG: Climate, Evolution, and Survival: During the period of human evolution, Earth's climate fluctuated between moist and dry, warm and cool. The challenge of surviving during these times of change shaped the course of human evolution. Climate changes posed considerable hardships to early humans seeking food, shelter, and other resources. Any new traits that increased their ability to meet these basic needs increased their chances of survival.
57. SINHHO_140402_524.JPG: This climate curve shows how Earth's climate has fluctuated between warm and cool over the past 10 million years. Notice how much dramatic the fluctuations were during the 6-million-year period of human evolution. Our species, Homo sapiens, evolved during the most dramatic fluctuations of all. How Do We Know Climates Changed? Among the major sources of evidence are sediment cores from the ocean bottom. They preserve fossils of tiny organisms called foraminifera. By measuring oxygen in the skeletons of these organisms, scientists can calculate fluctuations in temperature and glaciers over millions of years.
58. SINHHO_140402_530.JPG: Humans: Change the World: Today Modern humans have spread to every continent and grown to huge numbers. Producing our own food, rather than tracking it down daily, has freed us to enrich our lives in many ways -- to become artists, inventors, scientists, politicians, and more. We have altered the world in ways that benefit us greatly. But this transformation had unintended consequences for other species as well as for ourselves, creating new survival challenges. 7,147,388,394 Current World Population The satellite image below shows Earth at night. Benefits and Costs of Our Success: Benefits: By settling down and producing our own food, we created: * enough food to feed billions of people and respond to catastrophes * buildings that protect us from extreme weather * technologies that enable us to extend our lives, communicate worldwide, and venture into space * time to think, create, play, socialize, and much more Costs: By settling down and producing our own food, we created: * piles of waste that form natural breeding grounds for contagious diseases * large concentrations of people, enabling diseases to spread and become epidemics * domesticated landscapes that displace wild habitats * loss of wild species that depend on natural habitats
59. SINHHO_140402_534.JPG: World Population Grows
60. SINHHO_140402_544.JPG: Rising CO2 levels: The level of CO2 today is the highest since our species evolved. The projected increase over the next century is more than twice that of any time in the past 6 million years and suggests a long-term sea level rise of 6.4m (21 ft). (By 250,000 years ago) Communicating with symbols (By 200,000 years ago) Modern humans evolve in Africa (By 160,000 years ago) Longer childhood and adolescence (By 130,000 years ago) Long-distance exchange of resources between groups (By 100,000 to 70,000 years ago) Modern humans make special tools for fishing and capturing dangerous prey (By ??? years ago) Modern humans almost become extinct; due to extreme climate changes, population reduced to no more than 10,000 adults of reproductive age (By 40,000 years ago) Creating paintings and figurines (By 10,500 years ago) Plant and animal domestication
61. SINHHO_140402_554.JPG: Our Survival Challenge: During the period in which humans evolved, Earth's temperature and the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere fluctuated together. Higher CO2 levels are associated with a warmer planet. Warmer temperatures, in turn, cause a rise in sea level as glaciers on land melt and the water flows to the sea. Notice what has happened to CO2 over the past century.
62. SINHHO_140402_558.JPG: How Do We Know CO2 Levels in the Past? Since 1958, researchers have measured atmospheric CO2 levels directly. To calculate ancient levels, they drill cores in Antarctica and other ice sheets and measure the CO2 levels in trapped air bubbles.
63. SINHHO_140402_561.JPG: Humans Change the World: For millions of years all humans, early and modern alike, had to find their own food. They spent a large part of each day gathering plants and hunting or scavenging animals. Then, within just the past 12,000 years, our species, Homo sapiens, made the transition to producing food and changing our surroundings. We have been so successful that we have inadvertently created a turning point in the history of life on Earth.
64. SINHHO_140402_568.JPG: 200,000 Years Ago Modern Humans Evolve in Africa: During a time of dramatic climate change, modern humans (Homo sapiens) evolved in Africa. Like early humans, modern humans gathered and hunted food. They evolved behaviors that helped them respond to the challenges of survival. The first modern humans shared the planet with at least three species of early humans. Over time, as modern humans spread around the world, the other three species became extinct. We are now the sole survivors in the human family tree. By 164,000 years ago: Modern humans collect and cook shellfish By 143,000 years ago: Extinction! Homo erectus becomes extinct By 130,000 years ago: Modern humans exchange resources over long distances By 90,000 years ago: Modern humans make special tools for fishing By 77,000 years ago: Modern humans record information on objects By 60,000 years ago: Modern humans begin to spread worldwide By 60,000 - 40,000 years ago: Modern humans create permanent drawings By 50,000 years ago: Modern humans reach Australia By 40,000 years ago: Modern humans reach Europe By 28,000 years ago: Extinction! Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) become extinct By 17,000 years ago: Extinction! Homo floresiensis becomes extinct, leaving modern humans (Homo sapiens) as the sole survivor in the once diverse human family tree By 15,000 years ago: Modern humans reach the Americas
65. SINHHO_140402_579.JPG: 12,000 Years Ago The Turning Point: Eventually, humans found they could control the growth and breeding of certain plants and animals. This discovery led to farming and herding animals, activities that transformed Earth's natural landscapes -- first locally, then globally. As humans invested more time in producing food, they settled down. Villages became towns, and towns became cities. With more food available, the human population began to increase dramatically.
66. SINHHO_140402_582.JPG: 11,200 years ago: Figs cultivated in Lower Jordan Valley, Middle East 11,000 years ago: Jericho, West Bank, begins to grow into a city 10,000 years ago: Cows domesticated in Africa and Middle East 10,000 years ago: Squash cultivated in North and South America 9,500 years ago: Wheat cultivated in Middle East 9,500 years ago: Catalhoyuk, Turkey, begins to grow into a city
67. SINHHO_140402_585.JPG: 9,000 years ago: Sheep domesticated in Middle East 9,000 years ago: Rice cultivated in China 9,000 years ago: Corn cultivated in America 8,000 years ago: Chickens domesticated in Southeast Asia 7,000 years ago: Potatoes cultivated in South America 7,000 years ago: Bananas cultivated in Southeast Asia
68. SINHHO_140402_591.JPG: 5,600 years ago: Horses domesticated in Eurasia
69. SINHHO_140402_593.JPG: 4,400 years ago: Caral, Peru, begins to grow into a city 3,600 years ago: Cacao (chocolate) cultivated in Central America 3,400 years ago: Athens, Greece, begins to grow into a city 3,100 years ago: Xi'an, China, begins to grow into a city 2,760 years ago: Rome, Italy, begins to grow into a city 2,000 years ago: Tea cultivated in China
70. SINHHO_140402_595.JPG: 2,000 years ago: Tea cultivated in China 165-180 CE: Smallpox kills millions of citizens in ancient Rome 500 Common Era (CE): Coffee cultivated in Africa 540-542 CE: Bubonic plague kills up to 10,000 people a day in Europe, North Africa, and the Near East 1345-1400 CE: Bubonic plague ("The Plague") kills at least a third of Europe's population 1918-1918 CE: Influenza kills up to 40 million people worldwide, about 5% of the entire human population
71. SINHHO_140402_610.JPG: Paranthropus boisei Finding Food: In East Africa, a male Paranthropus boisei tugs at a root. It would be tough eating for us. But this early human had huge jaws and large teeth that enabled it to crush and grind raw foods. The earliest humans survived by foraging and scavenging for many types of food.
72. SINHHO_140402_616.JPG: The First Step: Walking Upright: The shift to walking on two legs rather than four began at least 6 million years ago. This 3.2-million-year-old skeleton, nicknamed Lucy, shows some of the changes that happened along the way. The skeleton combines apelike and humanlike features that enabled Lucy to climb trees and also walk on the ground. This flexibility enabled her species to survive in a variety of environments. Apelike arm: Notice how long this arm bone is compared to the rest of the skeleton. Its length is a clue that Lucy's species climbed trees. Powerful chest and upper arm muscles pulled on the bone during climbing, creating the ridge -- or crest -- at the top. Humanlike hips: Chimpanzees and other nonhuman apes have hip bones that are tall and narrow. Lucy's pelvis is short and broad. It enabled the hip muscles to hold the body upright as each leg swung forward to walk. Grasping fingers: Compared with your fingers, Lucy's are long and curved. They curled around tree branches to provide a secure grip. Angled knees: See how Lucy's thigh bone angles inward toward the knee joint? That angle is strong evidence that she walked upright. It positions the knees directly under the middle of the body, a requirement for efficient walking on two legs. Flexible feet: Lucy's species had compact feet that supported the body's weight during upright walking. But look at the toe bones. They are longer and more curved than those of a modern human foot, more like those of tree-climbing apes.
73. SINHHO_140402_622.JPG: Bruce Guthrie as a caveman @ the Human Origins exhibit
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Wikipedia Description: National Museum of Natural History
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
...
Hall of Human Origins

The David H. Koch Hall of Human Origins opened on March 17th, 2010, marking the museum's 100th anniversary. The hall is named for David H. Koch, who contributed $15 million to the $20.7 million exhibit.

The Hall is "dedicated to the discovery and understanding of human origins," and occupies 15,000 square feet of exhibit space. Specimens include 75 replica skulls, an interactive human family tree that follows six million years of evolution, and a Changing the World gallery that focuses on issues surrounding climate change and humans' impact on the world. The exhibit has been criticized for downplaying the significance of human-caused global warming, in exchange for the money from Koch. Koch Industries, a private company in the business of petroleum and other fossil fuels, and chemicals, is a major funder of climate change disinformation.

The exhibit also provides a complementary web site, humanorigins.si.edu, which provides diaries and podcasts directly from related fields of research. The exhibit was designed by Reich + Petch Design International. .
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