BGuthrie Photos: OH -- Dayton -- Natl Museum of the United States Air Force -- World War II gallery

OH -- Dayton -- Natl Museum of the United States Air Force -- World War II gallery:

Bruce Guthrie Photos Home Page: [Click here] to go to Bruce Guthrie Photos home page.

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Copyrights: All pictures were taken by amateur photographer Bruce Guthrie (me!) who retains copyright on them. Free for non-commercial use with attribution. See the [Creative Commons] definition of what this means. "Photos (c) Bruce Guthrie" is fine for attribution. (Commercial use folks including AI scrapers can of course contact me.) Feel free to use in publications and pages with attribution but you don't have permission to sell the photos themselves. A free copy of any printed publication using any photographs is requested. Descriptive text, if any, is from a mixture of sources, quite frequently from signs at the location or from official web sites; copyrights, if any, are retained by their original owners.

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Specific picture descriptions: Photos above with "i" icons next to the bracketed sequence numbers (e.g. "[1] ") are described as follows:
1. NMUW2A_120805_012.JPG: "Prejudice & Memory: A Holocaust Exhibit" is made up of the photographs, artifacts and memories of people who now live in the Dayton, Ohio, area. Among the contributors are concentration camp survivors and their families, liberators and "righteous Gentiles" (non-Jews who helped Jews during the Holocaust). It is one of the few such exhibits in the U.S. compiled to demonstrate one community's connection with this terrible event and to affirm the belief that learning about the Holocaust is the first step toward preventing its recurrence.
2. NMUW2A_120805_031.JPG: ARMY AIR FORCES: VICTIMS OF THE HOLOCAUST: Buchenwald, An Example: Germans built Buchenwald in 1937 as a work camp for the "undesirables" of Nazi society, mostly Jews and political prisoners. It later became one of a number of German "death camps." At war's end, as many as 60,000 people had died there. Even more died at such larger camps as Dachau and Auschwitz, which were run with greater "efficiency." In later summer and autumn of 1944, 82 AAF and 86 British Commonwealth aviators were captives at Buchenwald. Most had been shot down over France and had made connections with the French Resistance in their effort to return to their units, as they were expected to do. They had received French identification papers and were dressed as civilians to avoid capture. A traitor within the French Underground betrayed them to the Germans, and they were captured. As Allied forces prepared to enter Paris, they were evacuated with a large number of political prisoners to Buchenwald in Weimar, Germany. They arrived after a harrowing five-day train ride jammed in boxcars with little food or water. There they were shaved bare and spent the next three weeks without shoes or shelter, sleeping on paving stones. A Canadian aviator described the daily ration as "a little bowl of soup made from grass or cabbage leaves, and an inch of bread and three little potatoes." One pilot lost more than 65 pounds during his six weeks there. Eventually, the POWs and other prisoners were placed in a barracks, 600 men to a building designed for 250. They slept on wooden shelves, five to a bunk, so crowded that no one could turn over until all did at the same time. P-47 pilot Lt. L.C. Beck Jr. and Royal Air Force Flying Officer P.D. Hemmens died before the airmen were transferred to a POW camp in October-November 1944. There they still faced the hardships of imprisonment, but at least they were free from the horrors of a death camp.
3. NMUW2A_120805_036.JPG: "The Japanese should hang -- not shoot -- every American terror pilot (Terrorflieger) then the Americans would think it over before making such attacks." - Advice given by Adolf Hitler on May 27, 1944, to the Japanese Ambassador on how to stop American air attacks
4. NMUW2A_120805_040.JPG: CONCENTRATION CAMP UNIFORM Perhaps the rarest artifact in the Holocaust exhibit, this concentration camp uniform is one of very few still in existence. It was given to the exhibit by Jack Bomstein, whose father Moritz wore the uniform while he was imprisoned at Buchenwald. Note: Allied prisoners of war interned at Buchenwald in 1944 had their uniforms taken away, and they too were forced to wear uniforms similar to this one.
5. NMUW2A_120805_052.JPG: BRIEF RETROSPECT ON HUMAN RIGHTS 1901-1913 Dayton police adopted the Bertillon identification system for criminals in 1902. This system recorded body measurements as well as mental and moral qualities. A similar system would be used during the 1930s in Germany to determine "Racial Purity." Whites rioted against black inhabitants in Springfield, Ohio. Militia units were called in to stop the violence in March 1906. In 1907 the U.S. passed laws to restrict immigration. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) was founded in the United States in 1909.
6. NMUW2A_120805_055.JPG: 1914-1918: World War I started when Archduke Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo in 1914. The war would last until 1918. The Dayton Chapter of NAACP was founded in 1915. A mob of 3,000 seriously injured the sheriff of Lima, Ohio, after he concealed a black rape suspect in 1916. The U.S. entered WWI in 1917. 1,184 striking miners were forcibly deported to an internment camp in New Mexico by boxcar in 1917. Germany would later use boxcars to deport Jews to concentration camps. 1919-1920: The Treaty of Versailles was signed and the League of Nations was organized for the preservation of peace in 1919. U.S. Senate voted against joining the League of Nations. The National Socialist German Worker's Party (Nazi) was formed with 60 members. Adolf Hitler writes the party platform. Race riots occurred in Chicago. There was rapid growth in the black population of Dayton, Ohio, as blacks moved north to seek employment. The black population rose from 4,824 in 1910 to 9,025 in 1920.
7. NMUW2A_120805_059.JPG: 1921-1923: In Springfield, Ohio, 14 people were shot and wounded during a race riot in 1921. In 1923, 32 whites were arrested for assaulting police guards at a newly integrated school in Springfield, Ohio. In 1923, over 7,000 members of the Ku Klux Klan (KKK) marched down Main Street in Dayton. In India, Ghandi was sentenced to six years in prison for civil disobedience. Mussolini formed Fascist government in Italy. 1924-1926: By 1924, approximately 15,000 people, or about one out of every 10 Daytonians, had joined the KKK. Hitler was imprisoned for nine months after the Nazi Party failed in a violent attempt to take over the German government. While in prison, Hitler writes Mein Kampf (My Struggle). Hitler reorganized the Nazi Party, which had grown to 27,000 members. Black doctors in Cleveland, Ohio, had their homes bombed and stoned by mobs after they moved into "white" neighborhoods. John Scopes went on trial for teaching evolution in Tennessee.
8. NMUW2A_120805_063.JPG: 1927-1929: The National Origins Act was passed. It limited the immigration of Asians and Eastern European Jews into the United States. The Classic Theater was opened in Dayton during 1927 for black theater-goers excluded from Dayton's white theaters. The term "apartheid" (separation of the races) was first used in South Africa in 1929. Stock market fall triggered a worldwide depression. German economic system collapsed. General strike took place after members of the Nazi Party were acquitted of political murder. 1930-1932: The worldwide depression continued, many businesses failed and 18 percent of the German population was unemployed. Hunger became common in Germany. German population had grown to 36 million people. Very few of these people belonged to either religious or racial minority groups. The Jews were the largest religious minority, numbering less than 1 percent of German's total population. The Nazi Party grew rapidly. With 800,000 members by 1930, it received 11 percent of the German vote. In 1932 they received 1 million votes, enough to lead Germany in a coalition government. In February of 1932, California authorities began to round up and force Hispanics onto trains leaving for Mexico. By the end of the year, over 11,000 had been forcibly deported.
9. NMUW2A_120805_067.JPG: 1933: Hitler was appointed Chancellor of Germany. The passage of the German Enabling Laws consolidated political, legal and economic power under the Nazi Party. The Nazi Party organized a general boycott of Jewish-owned businesses. Dachau, the first concentration camp in Germany, was opened for political prisoners, habitual criminals and homosexuals. The public burning of books written by political dissidents and Jews became fashionable in Germany. 1934-1935: Laws passed in the United States allowed the courts to authorize the sterilization of the mentally handicapped. In Germany, laws are passed requiring the sterilization of both the physically and mentally handicapped. Germany ignored the provisions in the Treaty of Versailles and began to rebuild its armed forces. "Juden Verboten" (Jews Forbidden) signs appeared in stores and restaurants throughout Germany. Nuremberg Laws deprived all German Jews of citizenship. The testing of biological warfare agents on prisoners of war by Japanese researchers became commonplace. Most victims died in agony. Some victims were still alive when they were dissected.
10. NMUW2A_120805_073.JPG: 1936-1937: German troops took over the Rhineland, which had been given to France after WWI. Black and mixed-race children from the area are sterilized. Italy began the use of poisoned gas against the Ethiopians. Jewish doctors barred from practicing medicine in German institutions. Japan invaded China and began the mass killing of Chinese. Many Jews left Germany to escape the growing discrimination. Over 150,000 Hispanics had been forcibly transported from California to Mexico. Some of these Hispanics were American citizens who suffered severe financial losses in the process. 1938: Germany marked Jewish passports with stamped letter "J." Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass) was the start of large-scale anti-Jewish violence in Germany and Austria. 20,000-30,000 Jews were sent to concentration camps. Jewish students were expelled from all German schools. It became much more difficult for Jews to leave Germany. Italy passed anti-Jewish legislation. U.S. Supreme Court ruled that the University of Missouri Law School must admit blacks because of a lack of other facilities in the area.
11. NMUW2A_120805_075.JPG: 1939: Hitler stated that if war erupts, it will mean Vernichtung (extermination) for Jews. Germany invaded Czechoslovakia and Poland. England and France declare war on Germany. World War II began. Handicapped patients in Germany were killed in an effort to "improve the Aryan Race." This included the first use of gas chambers for mass killing. Ghettos are established in Poland for the isolation of the Jews as deportations from Austria and Czechoslovakiato Poland begin. Hitler openly used the American removal of Native Americans to reservations as a model for the removal of European Jews to Ghettos.
12. NMUW2A_120805_078.JPG: ARMY AIR FORCES VICTIMS OF THE HOLOCAUST Almost 36,000 Army Air Forces (AAF) personnel were confined in prisoner of war (POW) camps in Europe. There, under the 1929, Geneva Convention, POWs had certain rights. These rights were not always honored by the Germans, however. Conditions varied widely from camp to camp, officers usually fared better than enlisted men who sometimes faced malnutrition and beatings. The treatment of Jewish POWs ranged from their being ignored or segregated to brutality and even death. Despite their status as POWs, some Jewish and non-Jewish Americans were sent to concentration camps where they were subjected to the horrors of starvation, overwork, no medical attention, beatings and murder. Some are known to have died at Berga slave labor camp. At least one American airman is thought to have been executed at Dachau, and some AAF POWs were sent to the infamous Mauthausen concentration camp where some were put to death.
13. NMUW2A_120805_082.JPG: ARMY AIR FORCES VICTIMS OF THE HOLOCAUST: Terrorflieger: As Allied air forces took control of the skies over Europe in the summer of 1944, Adolf Hitler ordered the immediate execution of Allied flyers accused of committing certain acts. Named a Terrorflieger (terror flyers), the unfortunate Allied flyer would not be given a trial. However, the German Foreign Office expressed concern about shooting POWs and suggested that enemy airmen suspected of such offenses not be given the legal status of POWs. Following this advice, the Gestapo and Security Police informed captured Allied airmen that they were criminals, not POWs. Using this justification, the Gestapo and Security Police sent 168 captured Allied airmen (including 82 Americans) to Buchenwald Concentration Camp. These airmen had been shot down over France and turned over to the Gestapo and Secret Police by traitors in the French Resistance. Arriving at Buchenwald on Aug. 20, 1944, these men received the same horrible treatment and beatings as the other inmates. After sleeping outside for the first three weeks, the 168 Allied airmen were moved into an overcrowded, 150-foot-by-30-foot hut along with another 757 inmates, including about 350 Gypsy boys aged from 8 to 14. Most of the Gypsy boys were removed (probably executed) to make "room" from the 168 Allied POWs, but they still slept five men to a bunk. With medical care being essentially non-existent, the injured and sick Allied POWs suffered immediately. On the night of Oct. 18-19, 1944,156 of the 168 were transported from Buchenwald, and they arrived at Stalag Luft III on Oct. 22. Earlier that year, the Gestapo had murdered 50 Allied POWs who had escaped from Stalag Luft III. Too sick to travel, 12 POWs remained at Buchenwald. Two of them died, including one American who died of pneumonia, and the other 10 were transported to the POW camps later. Postscript: In 1999 the German government paid 34.5 million Deutschmarks in reparations to various survivors of the Holocaust who were U.S. citizens -- both civilian and military -- interned in German concentration camps during World War II. American POWs who had been sent to Buchenwald were among those receiving reparations.
14. NMUW2A_120805_088.JPG: 1940: Germany occupied Denmark, Norway, Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg and France. German anti-Semitic laws are now enforced in these countries. Germany stepped up unrestricted submarine warfare, sinking thousands of tons of merchant shipping and killing hundreds of civilians without warning. Auschwitz concentration camp opened. 500,000 Jews sealed in the Warsaw Ghetto, many being allowed only one suitcase. United States Selective Service Act required draftees be selected in a racially impartial manner, but the armed forces of the United States were to remain racially segregated. 1941: Deportation of German and Dutch Jews to concentration camps. Theresienstadt ghetto opened in Czechoslovakia. Auschwitz II-Birkenau built as extermination camp. Coventry, England, destroyed by a German air attack. This was the first massive air raid on an essentially civilian target. Germany attacked Russia. Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. America declares war on Germany, Italy and Japan.
15. NMUW2A_120805_095.JPG: People Are More Than Just a Number Justin North
16. NMUW2A_120805_106.JPG: 1942: Wannsee Conference: Nazi officials agreed on a plan to kill all the Jews in Eastern Europe as a "Final Solution to the Jewish Problem." Germans began using gas chambers to kill millions of Jews. 30,000 Parisian Jews sent to camps (only 30 will survive). U.S. moves over 100,000 West Coast Japanese-Americans to inland internment camps. Most were only allowed to take a single suitcase. Like the Hispanic-Americans moved during the 1930s, they suffered severe financial losses. Brutal war continued in Russia where the Germans killed millions of Soviet civilians and unarmed prisoners of war. 1943: The Russian army pushed the German army back and discovered evidence of mass executions of Russian citizens. Race riots occurred in larger U.S. cities that have received an influx of southern black laborers. A massacre of the inhabitants by German troops ends the Warsaw Ghetto revolt. The German city of Hamburg was consumed in the first firestorm created by aerial bombardment. Thousands of civilians were killed. American coal mines were taken over by the U.S. when a half million coal miners went on strike.
17. NMUW2A_120805_110.JPG: 1944: Deportation of Hungarian Jews to Auschwitz (380,000 killed in three months). D-Day Allies invade Nazi-occupied Europe at Normandy, France. German buzz bombs and V-2 rockets land randomly in London, killing over 2,700 people. Round-the-clock bombing of German cities; thousands of civilians die. During the Battle of the Bulge, German troops torture and kill black soldiers serving in the American Army. 1945: Hitler committed suicide on April 30. Auschwitz was liberated. Thousands of civilians on Okinawa died in the crossfire between U.S. and Japanese troops. Germany surrendered unconditionally. U.S. began massive firebombing of Tokyo and other cities, causing a massive loss of civilian life that dwarfed the number killed by the later use of the atomic bomb on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Japan surrendered, ending WWII.
18. NMUW2A_120805_113.JPG: 1946: Disagreements between Russia and the Western Allies over the future of Europe resulted in the beginning of the Cold War. At the Nuremberg Trials, 12 Nazis were sentenced to death and two to life imprisonment for war crimes. Many other "wanted" Nazi war criminals were employed by the U.S. and British governments. Loyalty Oath was required of U.S. government employees in response to a growing fear of communism. Japanese experimenters who had killed thousands of people in the process of conducting biological warfare tests were released without charges by the U.S. government in exchange for the results of their experiments. 1947-1948: UN planned for partition of Palestine. House Un-American Committee (HUAC) formed in 1947 in response to public fear of communistic activities in the U.S. U.S. Committee on Civil Rights reported widespread unequal treatment in education, housing, medical care, etc. Jewish State of Israel founded in 1948. USSR halts traffic into Berlin; the U.S. responds with the Berlin Airlift. UN prepared the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
19. NMUW2A_120805_117.JPG: BRIEF RETROSPECT ON HUMAN RIGHTS Compiled by James Houk 1949-1950: Apartheid program established in South Africa. Chinese revolution; establishment of Communist Peoples Republic of China. Korean War began in 1950. UN reported that from a total of 800 million children in the world, 480 million were undernourished. Independence Hall in Philadelphia was defaced with anti-Semitic slogans. The bombing of black homes became a nationwide problem in the U.S.
20. NMUW2A_120805_120.JPG: PARALLEL TRACKS TO GERMANY During World War I, many American "Doughboys" traveled the front in French railcars displaying the notice that each car could carry 40 men or eight horses. Therefore, they quickly became known as "forty and eight" railcars. In World War II, "forty and eights" again transported supplies and troops to the front, but they also carried new cargoes. Millions of Holocaust victims were herded into similar railcars on their way to concentration camps. Many Allied prisoners of war (POW) rode to German POW camps in them -- sometimes with as many as 90 men forced into each car. "Forty and eight" railcars carried 168 Allied POWs from Paris to the Buchenwald concentration camp in August 1944. In 2001 the French Railroad Co. (SNCF) donated this restored railcar to the museum. It now serves as a permanent reminder of the hardships and the sacrifice endured by so many in the cause of liberty.
21. NMUW2A_120805_149.JPG: Prejudice and Lies: Survivors of the World War II Holocaust and their families are living among us. They are European Jews who have survived the Nazi effort to systematically exterminate the world Jewish population between 1933 and 1945. Their stories and artifacts shared in this exhibit remind us that we must be ever watchful to prevent its recurrence to people anywhere. Germans were proud of their cultural heritage and some came to believe that they were superior to other people and nations. After losing World War I and being forced to pay heavy reparations, many Germans were angry because people were out of work and food was scarce. High inflation impoverished the middle class as people were forced to bring wheelbarrows full of money to pay for a loaf of bread. The Germans looked for someone to blame for the loss of the war and for their troubles. The National Socialist Workers Party, or Nazi Party, led by Adolf Hitler, gave the German people a comfortable answer. He blamed the Jews. One of six Jews had fought and 12,000 died alongside other Germans in World War I. Many others received awards for heroism. Still the Nazis blamed the Jews for everything that went wrong. Hitler was a charismatic speaker. He claimed the Jews were intent on destroying the German people. Logic was replaced by emotion. The truth was replaced by old lies and prejudice.
22. NMUW2A_120805_166.JPG: THE VIOLIN Fifty-nine years ago on Nov. 9, 1938, a teenager, 15 years old, experienced the most violent, barbaric display of anti-Semitic acts ever recorded in history. I was that teenager! The day began by witnessing the purposeful destruction of the only Jewish vocational school in the area, while people cheered and applauded. It was my school. Then, as I hurried home on my bike, I arrived to see a mob of Nazis in brown and black uniforms throwing our furniture and other belongings through windows which had been smashed and off the balcony. In the yard below, a huge bonfire consumed everything dear to us, while the Nazi hordes and mob of onlookers sang and shouted insults at us, the Jews. While our apartment was being destroyed and ransacked, mother was locked up in one room, crying loudly. My father was being beaten up in the hallway, pleading for mercy. When I too asked them to stop, they took me into my room, threw my violin at me, took me to the balcony, and ordered me to play happy German songs. I was scared, crying, in agony, but play I did to the amusement of the crowd. My father was taken to Dachau concentration camp. Our two beautiful synagogues were destroyed. Before I fled Germany, and eventual freedom in America, I hid the violin in the attic of our apartment. When I returned from military service in the U.S. Army and the war was won over Hitler, I wrote to the janitor of our apartment at Mannheim, Germany. He found the hidden violin and sent it to me in America! This is the violin which shares all the memories of the past with me. At one time it could vibrate to imitate the happy flight of song birds. Today it is only a reminder of a once dehumanized and terrified German boy. Robert Kahn Sept. 15, 1997
23. NMUW2A_120805_175.JPG: A LIBERATOR'S JACKET A native of Dayton, Ohio, Sgt. Delbert Cooper served as a soldier with the U.S. Army's 14th Regiment, 71st Infantry Division in 1945. Cooper was among the first Americans to enter and liberate Gunskirchen Lager, which was part of the notorious Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp in Austria. His most vivid memory of that harrowing experience was "the sickening smell of dead bodies -- the odor of evil."
24. NMUW2A_120805_198.JPG: DAY OF INFAMY: THE PEARL HARBOR ATTACK At 7:55 a.m. on Sunday, Dec. 7, 1941, a Japanese force of 183 airplanes attacked U.S. military and naval facilities on Oahu in the Hawaiian Islands without warning. For 30 minutes, dive bombers, level bombers and torpedo planes struck airfields and naval vessels. After a 15-minute lull, a second wave of 170 planes launched another attack at 8:40 a.m. that lasted an hour. Casualties to U.S. service personnel were 2,343 killed, 960 missing and 1,272 wounded; Japanese aircraft destroyed 151 U.S. planes on the ground and sank or damaged all eight U.S. battleships at anchor in Pearl Harbor. At a cost of only 28 airplanes shot down, the Japanese had dealt the United States a staggering blow. On Dec. 8, the United States declared war on Japan. Germany and Italy in turn declared war on the United States on Dec. 11. The United States then declared war on those two Axis partners of Japan.
25. NMUW2A_120805_209.JPG: A-2 flying jacket worn by the donor, Col. Lew Sanders, USAF (Ret), when he reportedly became the first person in US uniform to shoot down an enemy aircraft in World War II. Flying a P-36 of the 46th Fighter Squadron, he was one of a handful of USAAF pilots to get off the ground during the Pearl Harbor attack.
26. NMUW2A_120805_230.JPG: Fabric covering removed from Japanese airplane shot down near Hickam Field.
27. NMUW2A_120805_236.JPG: Cooling fins from a tube removed in early 1942 from the Opana station radar set of the Hawaiian Interceptor Command located at Kahuku Point on Oahu. This radar set was the one that picked up the Japanese aerial force at 7:02am as it headed for Hawaii. However, the radar blip was believed to be B-17s flying to Hawaii from the US or planes of the US Navy on search operations.
28. NMUW2A_120805_246.JPG: Headband worn by a Japanese flier killed during the Pearl Harbor attack when his Aichi D3A "Val" dive bomber was shot down by rifle fire from gate guards at Wheeler Field while he was strafing buildings and airplanes on the flight line. Inside the headband were sewn small pockets, one of which contained a good luck message. The Japanese characters on the headband indicate a message from a sister to her brother wishing him good luck in war. The Japanese characters on the paper message indicate that the bearer was protected by Enno, a country shrine.
29. NMUW2A_120805_256.JPG: RETREAT IN THE PACIFIC Following the Pearl Harbor attack, the Japanese turned their attention to the Southwest Pacific. For the next five months they were to sweep the Allies before them with alarming ease. Their first objective was the Philippine Islands, which they attacked from the air on Dec. 8, 1941 (Philippines time) and invaded the following day. In the face of overwhelming odds, U.S. and Filipino forces gradually withdrew over a period of weeks to the peninsula of Bataan and to Corregidor Island in Manila Bay. The defenders of Bataan were forced to surrender on April 9, 1942, whereas troops on Corregidor, although encircled and isolated, held out until May 6th.
30. NMUW2A_120805_279.JPG: POW identification number issued to the donor upon arrival at a camp at Mukden Manchuria in April 1945.
31. NMUW2A_120805_304.JPG: WAR OF SECRETS: CRYPTOLOGY IN WWII Cryptology is the study of secret codes. Being able to read encoded German and Japanese military and diplomatic communications was vitally important for victory in World War II, and it helped shorten the war considerably. Vital to Victory: In WWII, wireless radio communication was very important for directing military forces spread all over the world. But radio messages could be intercepted, so secret information -- plans and orders -- had to be transmitted in secret codes. All the major powers used complex machines that turned ordinary text into secret code. A German machine called Enigma and an American device known as SIGABA are on display in an exhibit in the museum's Air Power Gallery. The Allies were able to read German messages very early in the war thanks to brilliant work by Polish and British mathematicians. In the 1930s, Polish cryptanalysts (code-breaking experts) copied the German Enigma machine with the help of a German traitor, and solved its letter-scrambling patterns. They later shared this knowledge with France and Britain. Intelligence from decrypted Enigma messages, code-named "ULTRA," was extremely secret, and very few people knew about it. While the Germans never found out the Allies could solve their codes, they suspected it as their ability to sink Allied shipping slipped dramatically in 1942. This led the German Navy to add an additional rotor to their Enigma machines, and the submarine "wolf packs" once again started taking their toll of shipping. Cryptanalysts also exploited Japanese codes. By late 1940, the U.S. Army and Navy could read Japanese diplomatic messages between Tokyo and embassies in London, Washington, Berlin and Rome. American experts named the Japanese code PURPLE, and they called intelligence from these messages MAGIC. Unfortunately, the PURPLE diplomatic code did not provide specific military information, so Americans had no advance knowledge of the Pearl Harbor attack of Dec. 7, 1941. As the war went on, Allied analysts combined MAGIC and ULTRA intelligence. Japanese communication ironically played an important role in the war in Europe, since Tokyo wanted information from its diplomats about German and Italian progress. Intercepting these Japanese messages gave Allied commanders vital information about Nazi weapons production and German plans to defend Europe from invasion. Allied leaders also knew from MAGIC that Japan would not surrender unconditionally unless forced.
32. NMUW2A_120805_308.JPG: Code-breaking Heroics: Capturing secret code books was a key to breaking Axis codes. In 1940 the crew of a captured German ship threw their code books overboard, but the British Royal Navy managed to recover some of them. In 1942 British sailors recovered code books from a sinking U-boat in the Mediterranean Ocean. Two British sailors died, but the books they rescued allowed cryptanalysts to solve German codes used to communicate with submarines in the Atlantic. With captured code books and skilled code breaking, the Allies were reading up to four thousand Enigma intercepts every day by the end of 1942. These and similar technological victories helped the Allies stem the tide of U-boat attacks on vital supply convoys. On the home front, cryptologists built special equipment to attack Axis codes. British experts at Bletchley Park, near London, and American teams in Washington, D.C., and Dayton, Ohio, worked in extreme secrecy to decipher Enigma messages. They used early computers and raw mathematical talent to work through millions of scrambled possibilities in each German message until they found the right solution. Breaking German and Japanese codes gave the Allies an important advantage in WWII -- it saved many lives and shortened the war, by some estimates as much as two years. Enigma and the Air War: ULTRA gave the Allies critical information in the European air war. During the Battle of Britain, the outnumbered Royal Air Force depended on ULTRA to counter German raids. Later, Enigma intercepts gave Allied planners detailed information on the effects of strategic bombing, and they allowed Allied air power to virtually halt Axis sea convoys in the Mediterranean. The Luftwaffe (German Air Force) also unwittingly confirmed Allied air tactics' effectiveness by using Enigma to transmit reports of their losses, along with plans and orders.
33. NMUW2A_120805_311.JPG: Unbreakable American Codes: In contrast to German and Japanese codes, American codes proved unbreakable due to a superior code machine known as SIGABA, the most secure cryptographic machine used by any nation in WWII. The U.S. Army and Navy developed SIGABA before the war. "SIGABA" is not an acronym and does not stand for anything -- it is simply a code word. In 1935 Army cryptologists designed the basic machine, and they shared its design with the Navy. In 1940 the Army and Navy both adopted SIGABA, and the system became operational by August 1941. By 1943, more than 10,000 SIGABA machines were in use. SIGABA machines linked with British machines to let Presidents Roosevelt and Truman communicate securely with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill. SIGABA was so secret, though, that British personnel were not allowed access to the machine. The SIGABA system was used until 1959, when the speed of modern communications demanded new equipment. Most SIGABAs were destroyed to protect their design, and only a few exist today. The secret patent for SIGABA was declassified in 1996. Enigma vs. Sigaba: The Enigma and SIGABA machines on display have important similarities and differences. Both are "rotor machines," that is, they scrambled typed-in messages by sending electrical current through rotating wheels. Neither machine is a computer. They use electricity only to substitute letters in the alphabet with moving mechanical parts that are wired in a very complex fashion. Neither machine can send or receive messages like a radio or computer -- they can only encipher or decipher typed-in text. Only another machine with exactly the same settings can decode a message. Both Enigma and SIGABA depended on a secret daily "keylist" of machine settings to keep enemy cryptologists from decoding messages. The most important difference between the machines is in their complexity. Most Enigmas used three rotors and some used four; SIGABA used 15. This made SIGABA's letter scrambling much more complex, and practically unbreakable by cryptologists. Enigma is also older than SIGABA. Invented in Germany in 1918, Enigma at first was a commercial device to protect banking transactions. SIGABA was invented about 20 years later, and was exclusively military equipment. SIGABA was easier to use than Enigma. The German machine needed two people to operate -- one typed in the message, and another copied down the resulting lighted letters. SIGABA, however, printed the letters on a paper tape, allowing a single person to operate it. Both Axis and Allied forces had great faith in their code machines. With SIGABA, American confidence was justified. The Germans believed -- wrongly, it turned out -- that Enigma also was unbreakable.
34. NMUW2A_120805_343.JPG: A RAIDER'S TOAST: THE DOOLITTLE RAIDERS' GOBLETS These 80 silver goblets commemorate the 80 men who flew the Doolittle Raid against Japan in April 1942. Over the years, these goblets have taken a highly symbolic place in the history of military aviation. In December 1946 Gen. James "Jimmy" Doolittle and his fellow Raiders gathered to celebrate his birthday, and that event turned into an annual reunion. In 1959 the city of Tucson, Ariz., presented the Doolittle Raiders with this set of silver goblets, each bearing the name of one of the 80 men who flew on the mission. During halftime at a U.S. Air Force Academy football game, Doolittle turned them over to the superintendent of the Academy for safekeeping. The Air Force Academy displayed these goblets between Raider reunions. In 1973 Richard E. "Dick" Cole, Doolittle's copilot during the 1942 raid, built this portable display case to transport them. At every reunion, the surviving Raiders meet privately to conduct their solemn "Goblet Ceremony." After toasting the Raiders who died since their last meeting, they turn the deceased men's goblets upside down. Each goblet has the Raider's name engraved twice -- so that it can be read if the goblet is right side up or upside down. When there are only two Raiders left, these two men will drink one final toast to their departed comrades. In 2005 the surviving Doolittle Raiders decided to make the National Museum of the United States Air Force the permanent home for these historic goblets.
35. NMUW2A_120805_364.JPG: AMERICA HITS BACK: THE DOOLITTLE TOKYO RAIDERS In the spring of 1942, America's morale slumped from numerous Japanese successes, and the country desperately needed a victory. Capt. Francis S. Low, a U.S. Navy submariner, suggested an attack against the heart of Japan using U.S. Army Air Forces medium bombers flown from a U.S. Navy aircraft carrier. The difficult task of training for and leading the raid went to Lt. Col. James H. "Jimmy" Doolittle, a brilliant aviator and compelling leader. The top secret plan called for the B-25s to take off about 450 miles from Japan, bomb selected targets at such locations as Yokohama and Tokyo, and then fly another 1,600 miles to friendly airfields in mainland China. The operation was risky -- medium bombers had never been flown from a carrier, and sailing so far into enemy territory endangered the U.S. Navy task force. At dawn on April 18, 1942, the task force, commanded by Admiral William "Bull" Halsey, was steaming west through rough Pacific seas, about 650 miles away from Japan. On the deck of the USS Hornet sat 16 B-25s. Unfortunately, the task force encountered an enemy patrol boat, and no one knew if it had radioed a warning to Japan before being sunk. Col. Doolittle and Admiral Halsey discussed their difficult choice -- cancel the raid or launch earlier than planned and risk running out of fuel. Doolittle chose to attack, and all 16 aircraft took to the air. Upon reaching the Japanese homeland, the Raiders dropped their bombs on oil storage facilities, factory areas and military installations, and then headed out across the East China Sea. As their fuel gauges dropped, the Raiders knew they could not reach their designated airfields. One by one, they ditched at sea, bailed out, or crash-landed in China (one crew diverted to the Soviet Union). Fortunately, with the help of the Chinese people, most of the Doolittle Raiders safely reached friendly forces (Japanese forces later executed as many as a quarter million Chinese citizens in retaliation for this assistance). When authorities released news of the attack, American morale zoomed from the depths to which it plunged following Japan's many early victories. Although the brilliant strike caused relatively little physical damage, it stunned the Japanese population -- their embarrassed leaders had promised the mainland would never be attacked. The Japanese transferred four fighter groups from the front lines to defend mainland Japan. To prevent future American attacks on the homeland, Admiral Yamamoto ordered the disastrous attack on Midway Island, which became the turning point in the war in the Pacific.
36. NMUW2A_120805_376.JPG: Crew No. 1 (Plane #40-2344, target Tokyo): 34th Bombardment Squadron, Lt. Col. James H. Doolittle, pilot; Lt. Richard E. Cole, copilot; Lt. Henry A. Potter, navigator; SSgt. Fred A. Braemer, bombardier; SSgt. Paul J. Leonard, flight engineer/gunner.
37. NMUW2A_120805_383.JPG: Camera used by Lt Knobloch, one of the pilots on the Tokyo Raid, to take the only photographs made of Japan from the attacking B-25s. Enlargements of the photos taken with this camera are on display.
38. NMUW2A_120805_403.JPG: THE EIGHT WHO WERE CAPTURED Following the Tokyo Raid, the crews of two planes remained unaccounted for. On Aug. 15, 1942, it was learned from the Swiss consulate general in Shanghai that the Japanese had eight American flyers at police headquarters in that city. On Oct. 19, 1942, the Japanese broadcast that they had tried two crews of the Tokyo Raid and sentenced them to death. No names or facts were given. A War Crimes Trial in Shanghai that opened in February 1946 uncovered the details. The court tried four Japanese officers for mistreatment of the eight POWs of the Tokyo Raid. In addition to being tortured, these men contracted dysentery and beri-beri as a result of the deplorable conditions under which they were confined. On Aug. 28, 1942, the eight were given a "trial" by Japanese officers, although they were never told the charges against them. On Oct. 14, 1942, Hallmark, Farrow and Spatz were advised they were to be executed. The next day the Japanese brought them to Public Cemetery No. 1 outside Shanghai. In accordance with proper ceremonial procedures of the Japanese military, they were then shot. The other five men (Meder, Nielsen, Hite, Barr and DeShazer) remained in solitary confinement on a starvation diet, their health rapidly deteriorating. In April 1943, they were moved to Nanking and on Dec. 1, 1943, Meder died. The other four men began to receive a slight improvement in their treatment and by sheer determination and the comfort they received from a lone copy of the Bible, they survived to August 1945 when they were freed. The four Japanese officers tried for their war crimes against the eight Tokyo Raiders were found guilty. Three were sentenced to hard labor for five years and the fourth to a nine-year sentence.
39. NMUW2A_120805_422.JPG: SILK SHIRTS WORN BY RAIDERS On the left is a hand-made shirt given to Lt. Charles L. McClure while hiding in China. The inscription reads, "In honorable memory of the first bombing of Japan, Allied hero, presented by the city of Chi-An, China." The donor was the navigator on the B-25 piloted by Lt. Ted A. Lawson, author of the famous book, Thirty Seconds Over Tokyo. All five crewman on Lawson's plane were injured when Lawson made a heavy landing on a beach in the dark with rain pelting the windshield. On the right is a silk shirt given to Lt. Charles A. Knobloch by the Chinese when he entered friendly territory.
40. NMUW2A_120805_433.JPG: Piece of jade given to Lt. Travis Hoover, a Tokyo Raid pilot, by a Chinese District Commissioner. The donor, Mr. Tung-Sheng Liu, a Chinese citizen in 1943, acted as interpreter for the crew from Hoover's plane and guided them to safety (as well as crews from several other planes). In 1946, he came to the US and in 1954, became a citizen. He was employed as an aeronautical engineer at Wright-Petterson AFB in 1956- at the time of his retirement in 1978 he was CHief of the Engineering Review Division of the Aeronautical Systems Division.
41. NMUW2A_120805_437.JPG: Piece of one of the Tokyo Raider B-25s that crashed in China. The Chinese inscription on it reads: "One of the fragments from an Allied Anti-Aggression American airplane which crashed at Kao-Tsian-Kwan after it raided Japan with incendiary bombs on 18 April 1942. Noted by Lai-Sweion 21st."
42. NMUW2A_120805_441.JPG: Chinese dagger presented to Lt. Lucian Youngblood, co-pilot of Plane #4.
43. NMUW2A_120805_445.JPG: Tokyo Raid jacket patch designed after the mission in April 1942, and donated by Gen. James H. Doolittle, USAD (Ret.).
44. NMUW2A_120805_449.JPG: RAIDERS FLYING JACKETS On the far right is the A-2 flying jacket with the insignia of the 432nd Bomb Squadron worn by Capt. C. Ross Greening on the Tokyo Raid. He was later shot down and captured by the Germans in July 1943.
45. NMUW2A_120805_456.JPG: RAIDERS FLYING JACKETS To the left is an A-2 flying jacket with the insignia of the 34th Bomb Squadron worn by Lt. Thomas C. Griffin on the Tokyo Raid. He was later shot down and captured while flying combat in North Africa in 1943.
46. NMUW2A_120805_501.JPG: DOOLITTLE RAID The Mission and the Man: In January 1942, Gen. Henry "Hap" Arnold selected Lt. Col. James Doolittle to lead Special Aviation Project No. 1, the bombing of Japan. Doolittle, who enlisted in the Army in 1917, became a flying cadet and received his commission in 1918. In the late 1920s and the early 1930s, he won the prestigious Schneider, Bendix and Thompson aviation trophies. He made the first blind flight in 1929 during which he took off, flew and landed while being completely dependent upon aircraft instruments. Doolittle left the Army Air Corps in 1930, but when war appeared imminent, in 1940 he returned to active duty. Although the Doolittle Raid of April 18, 1942, caused only minor damage, it forced the Japanese to recall combat forces for home defense, raised fears among the Japanese civilians, and boosted morale among Americans and our Allies abroad.
47. NMUW2A_120805_505.JPG: DOOLITTLE RAID: North American B-25B Mitchell: The B-25 medium bomber was one of America's most famous airplanes of World War II, and more than 9,800 were built. It saw duty in every combat area, being flown by the Dutch, British, Chinese, Russians and Australians in addition to U.S. forces. Although the B-25 was originally intended for level bombing from medium altitudes, Pacific Theater aircrews often used it at low level to attack Japanese airfields and strafe and skip bomb enemy shipping. The U.S. Army Air Forces chose the B-25 for the Doolittle Raid because it was the only aircraft available with the required range, bomb capacity and short takeoff distance. The B-25Bs and 24 trained volunteer crews came from the 17th Bombardment Group, Pendleton Field, Ore. The airplane on display at the museum is a B-25D rebuilt by North American to the configuration of a B-25B used on the Tokyo Raid. It was flown to the museum in April 1958.
48. NMUW2A_120805_507.JPG: DOOLITTLE RAID: The Training: The crews selected for the mission received their training at Eglin Field, Fla. Lt. Henry L. Miller, a Navy pilot from Pensacola Naval Station, provided assistance on how to take off within 300 feet, the available distance on the carrier USS Hornet. The crews also practiced cross-country and night flying, navigating without radio references or landmarks, low-level bombing and aerial gunnery. They completed their training in mid-March and later flew to San Francisco to board the carrier.
49. NMUW2A_120805_510.JPG: DOOLITTLE RAID: The Bombsight: Instead of the Norden bombsight, which was ineffective at low altitudes, Capt. C. Ross Greening, pilot and armament officer for Doolittle's group designed a replacement bombsight (seen in the nose of the aircraft). This bombsight was connected to the cockpit through the pilot direction indicator, allowing the bombardier to give the pilot aircraft turn directions without relying on voice communication. Using materials costing 20 cents, the metal working shops at Eglin Field manufactured the bombsights.
50. NMUW2A_120805_515.JPG: DOOLITTLE RAID: The Aircraft Carrier: The newly-built aircraft carrier USS Hornet was chosen to carry Doolittle's B-25s toward Japan. In March it sailed to Alameda Naval Air Station near San Francisco to load the Army Air Forces aircraft, 72 officers and 64 enlisted men. On April 2, 1942, not wanting to sail at night because of an inexperienced crew, the Hornet's captain, Marc A. Mitscher, left for the secret mission in broad daylight.
51. NMUW2A_120805_547.JPG: LUFTWAFFE GENERAL STAFF OIL PAINTING This oil painting, done in Germany approximately 1941, was brought to the U.S. at the end of World War II. Reichs Marshall Hermann Goering (front center), Commander-in-Chief of the Luftwaffe, and Colonel-General Ernst Udet (left of Goering), General of Luftwaffe Supplies, were both famous German aces of World War I.
52. NMUW2A_120805_641.JPG: Left side of the vertical tail section from the B-17G 42-97683: The aircraft was shot down on March 15, 1945, killing top turret gunner Technical Sergeant Sator "Sandy" Sanchez on his 66th combat mission. The tail section was discovered in 1993, being used as part of a farmer's shed near the crash site in Germany. The 52nd Equipment Maintenance Squadron recovered the artifact for the Air Force Museum in 1996.
53. NMUW2B_120805_016.JPG: Tuskegee pilot wings
54. NMUW2B_120805_019.JPG: Parachute "D" ring and ripcord
55. NMUW2B_120805_026.JPG: ESCORT EXCELLENCE While the 99th Fighter Squadron made its mark in combat, Benjamin Davis had been sent back to the United States to take command of the 332nd Fighter Group, which absorbed the 99th into an all-black group of four squadrons. They left their P-40s and P-39s in favor of the robust P-47 Thunderbolt, and later the sleek P-51 Mustang. Davis, now a colonel, returned to lead the group. He was known as a strict disciplinarian and urged his men to prove themselves in combat as the best reply to racism. The 332nd Fighter Group flew 179 bomber escort missions from June 1944 through the end of the war. The Tuskegee Airmen proved especially valuable in this role. While on escort missions, Davis' airmen performed with great skill and courage, on one occasion shooting down 13 German fighters. But despite its success, the 332nd was often outnumbered. On one mission, Davis' 39 aircraft attacked more than 100 German fighters, shooting down five and for the loss of one and earning Davis the Distinguished Flying Cross for bravery and leadership. Tuskegee's airmen faced the best the Luftwaffe had, including the first jet fighters. On March 24, 1945, as the 332nd became one of the first Italy-based fighter unit to escort all B-17s all the way to Berlin and back, they met 25 German Me 262 jets. In the ensuing combat, three jets fell and the 332nd lost only one P-51. Significantly, the 332nd had completed the full 1,600-mile mission, for which it earned the Distinguished Unit Citation. When the war in Europe ended, the 332nd Fighter Group had shot down 112 enemy aircraft and destroyed another 150 on the ground. Also, they knocked out more than 600 railroad cars, and sank one destroyer and 40 boats and barges. Their losses included approximately 150 killed in combat or in accidents. During the war, Tuskegee had trained 992 pilots and sent 450 overseas. By any measure, the Tuskegee experiment was a resounding success. Colonel Davis returned to the US to command the 477th Medium Bombardment Group, which also trained at Tuskegee, but the war ended in Japan before the group saw action.
56. NMUW2B_120805_034.JPG: LT. GEN. DANIEL JAMES III A Family Tradition of Excellence Daniel James III is the first African-American to hold the post of Director of the Air National Guard. He assumed that command in 2002 following a flying career that included more than 300 combat missions in Southeast Asia and 4,000 flying hours. James, who retired in 2006, also served as Texas Adjutant General during his distinguished 38-year military career. He is the son of Daniel "Chappie" James Jr., who was the U.S. Air Force's first African-American four-star general. James was commissioned in 1968 and served as a forward air controller during the Southeast Asia War. In 1969-1970 he logged more than 500 combat hours flying O-1E Bird Dog aircraft based at Cam Ranh Bay, Republic of Vietnam. Returning to Southeast Asia in 1974-75, he served as a squadron assistant flight commander at Udorn Royal Thai AFB, Thailand, flying as a fighter pilot in F-4 Phantom aircraft. His postwar U.S. assignments were in the West and Southwest, where he served with units in California, Arizona and Texas. In December 1994 he became operations group commander of the Texas Air Guard's 149th Fighter Wing. Promoted to lieutenant general in 2002, James became the 11th director of the Air National Guard that year following his nomination by President George W. Bush and U.S. Senate confirmation. As ANG director, James was responsible for more than 104,000 Airmen in 88 flying units in the United States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, Guam and the Virgin Islands. Among his numerous awards are the Distinguished Service Medal, the Legion of Merit, two Distinguished Flying Crosses and seven Air Medals. James has also received several service awards for his work as a community leader. He retired from military service on May 10, 2006.
57. NMUW2B_120805_039.JPG: DAVIS LEADS THE 99TH INTO COMBAT The U.S. Army Air Force's experimental flying unit, being rigidly segregated, required a black leader. Capt. Benjamin O. Davis Jr. was chosen to lead the outfit because he was one of only two black line officers in the Army -- the other was his father. Capt. Davis was a West Point graduate whose leadership skills and personal strength in overcoming racism helped make him an effective combat leader. He would eventually become the U.S. Air Force's first black general. Led by Davis, Tuskegee's first group of five men graduated as USAAF fighter pilots on March 7, 1942. The 99th Pursuit Squadron added personnel and trained for a year before finally being sent to North Africa in the spring of 1943. They were attached to the 33rd Fighter Group at Fordjouna, Tunisia. Flying P-40 Warhawks, the 99th first saw combat on June 2, 1943, as the Allies secured the Italian island of Pantellaria. The unit scored its first aerial victory against the Luftwaffe on July 2 when Lt. Charles B. Hall shot down a Focke Wulf Fw 190 on his eighth mission. The unit's first losses occurred the same day as Lts. Sherman White and James McCullin were killed. Trouble followed as time passed. Three months into its combat tour, the 99th was accused of lacking discipline and aggressiveness and was nearly dissolved. Davis saved them, explaining that, unlike white units, they had no experienced veterans to guide them.
58. NMUW2B_120805_049.JPG: TRAINING BEGINS In March 1941 the Air Corps announced the formation of its first-ever black combat unit, the 99th Pursuit (later Fighter) Squadron. Reflecting contemporary American custom and War Department policy, Tuskegee's black aviators remained segregated in an all-black organization. The unit was to include 47 officers and 429 enlisted men; ground crews were to train at Chanute Army Air Field, Ill., while pilots trained at Tuskegee. Primary flight training took place in Tuskegee Institute's Division of Aeronautics, with beginning flying lessons at the school's Moton Field. Advanced training and transition to military aircraft were conducted at Tuskegee Army Air Field, which was officially established on July 23, 1941. Col. (later Brig. Gen.) Noel F. Parrish, a white officer, commanded the installation and was well respected by his troops for his tact and concern for black airmen facing discrimination.
59. NMUW2B_120805_054.JPG: POLITICAL PRESSURE During World War II, the US military was racially segregated. Reflecting American society and law at the time, most black soldiers and sailors were restricted to labor battalions and other support positions. An experiment in the US Army Air Forces, however, showed that given equal opportunity and training. African Americans could fly in, command, and support combat units as well as anyone. The USAAF's black fliers, the so-called "Tuskegee Airmen," served with distinction in combat and directly contributed to the eventual integration of the US armed services, with the US Air Force leading the way. In the late 1930s President Franklin D. Roosevelt anticipated that the United States could be drawn into a war with Europe. His administration, therefore, began a pilot training program in 1938 to create a reserve of trained civilian fliers in case of national emergency. After African-American leaders argued that blacks should share with whites the burden of defending the United States, the program was soon opened to African-Americans. In 1940 the Selective Training and Service Act banned racial discrimination in conscription, clearing the way for blacks to be trained for Air Corps service. Tuskegee Institute, a black college founded in Alabama in 1881 by Booker T. Washington, participated in the Roosevelt administration's pilot training program. Tuskegee graduated its first civilian licensed pilots in May 1940 and was the only source of black military pilots in WWII.
60. NMUW2B_120805_146.JPG: In September 1942, Glenn Miller, one of America's greatest dance band leaders of the period, disbanded his orchestra so he could join the Army Air Forces to do his part for the war effort. Within a year, he organized and perfected what has been widely accepted as the greatest aggregation of dance musicians ever forged into a single unit, the Maj. Glenn Miller Army Air Force Band.
61. NMUW2B_120805_164.JPG: The band was transferred from the United States to England in June 1944 and immediately began playing in theaters, clubs, hospitals, hangars and even out in the open -- anywhere that U.S. servicemen could gather. In the 15 months the unit served in Europe, it made more than 350 personal appearances, attended by 1,250,000 military personnel. In addition, it made more than 500 radio broadcasts for the pleasure of millions of other soldiers. It brought "a little bit of home" to the lonely serviceman in foreign lands and was enjoyed by our Allies as well.
62. NMUW2B_120805_174.JPG: D-DAY INVASION DUMMY One of the least-known episodes of the Allied invasion of Europe on D-Day, June 6, 1944, was the use of straw-filled and inflatable rubber dummy parachutists for deception and diversionary tactics. They were fitted with explosive devices fused to detonate near the ground, thus giving the illusion of gunfire and confusing German defenders. Dummies were dropped at night in the area of Marigny, France. They were successful in diverting the German 915th Infantry Regiment toward the fake drop zone to counter what the Germans thought was an airborne landing. This temporarily weakened the defenses in the actual paratroop drop area. The maker and donor of this replica straw-filled dummy manufactured 5,000 of the inflatable rubber dummies for the U.S. government in one month, in the spring of 1944. He did not know just how they had been used until several years after D-Day. Although a few original dummy parachutists are displayed in Europe, no original specimens exist in museums in the U.S. The National Museum of the U.S. Air Force is still seeking an original.
63. NMUW2B_120805_182.JPG: Jimmy Stewart's pilot jacket
64. NMUW2B_120805_189.JPG: Jackie Coogan jacket
65. NMUW2B_120805_193.JPG: FLIGHT OFFICER JACKIE COOGAN Jackie Coogan enlisted in the Army on March 4, 1941. When the U.S. entered World War II as a result of the Pearl Harbor attack, Coogan requested transfer to the AAF as a glider pilot because of his civilian flying experience. He was sent to glider school at Lubbock, Texas, and Twentynine Palms, Calif. Upon graduation, he was made a Flight Officer. He then volunteered for hazardous duty with the 1st Air Commando Group being formed by the famous Col. Phil Cochran. In December 1943, the unit was sent to India where, using Waco CG-4A gliders, it airlifted crack British troops under Gen. Orde Wingate during the night aerial invasion of Burma (March 5, 1944), landing them in a small jungle clearing 100 miles behind Japanese lines. Coogan returned to the United States in May 1944 and was discharged in December. 1945.
66. NMUW2B_120805_200.JPG: BRIG. GEN. JAMES M. STEWART On March 22, 1941, Jimmy Stewart was drafted into the U.S. Armed Forces. He was assigned to the Army Air Corps as an enlisted man and stationed at Moffett Field, Calif. During his nine months of training at that base, he also took extension courses with the idea of obtaining a commission. He completed the courses and was awaiting the results when Pearl Harbor took place. A month later he received his commission, and because he had logged over 400 hours as a civilian, he was permitted to take basic flight training at Moffett and received his pilot wings. During the next nine months, he instructed in AT-6, AT-9 and B-17 aircraft and flew bombardiers in the training school at Albuquerque, N.M. In the fall of 1943, Stewart went to England as Commanding Officer of the 703d Bomb Squadron, equipped with B-24s. He began flying combat missions and on March 31, 1944, was appointed Operations Officer of the 453rd Bomb Group and, subsequently, Chief of Staff of the 2nd Combat wing, 2nd Air Division of the 8th Air Force. Stewart ended the war with 20 combat missions. He remained in the USAF Reserve and was promoted to brigadier general on July 23, 1959. He retired on May 31, 1968.
67. NMUW2B_120805_218.JPG: MESSERSCHMITT ME 163B KOMET The German Me 163, a rocket-powered defensive fighter, was one of the most unusual aircraft of World War II. Fortunately, its potential impact was minimized by technical problems and the small number produced. The Me 163 was the end result of a long line of tailless research aircraft designed by Dr. Alexander Lippisch. The first Me 163A prototypes were tested in 1941, but powered flight testing of the more advanced Me 163B was delayed until August 1943 due to engine and fuel problems. Although the Komet's rocket engine gave it a exceptional climb rate, range was severely limited by its high fuel consumption. Furthermore, the fuels used were extremely hazardous and sometimes exploded without warning, killing a number of pilots. Production Me 163Bs were not ready for operational use until July 1944. The Luftwaffe planned to have small units of Komets dispersed to intercept Allied bomber formations, but only 279 Me 163Bs were delivered by the end of the war. The sole operational Komet group, JG 400, scored nine kills while losing 14 of its own aircraft. Sabotage and Defiance: This Me 163B (S/N 191095) may have been sabotaged while under construction, perhaps by the forced laborers building it in Germany. A small stone was wedged between the fuselage fuel tank and a supporting strap (which could have eventually caused a dangerous fuel leak), and there was contaminated glue in the wing structure (which could have caused a failure of the wing in flight). Inside the aircraft's skin are these words, perhaps written by a defiant French laborer: "Manufacture Ferme" means "Plant Closed." "Mon coeur est en chomage" translated directly means "My heart is not occupied" (as opposed to France being occupied by the Germans). The aircraft on display was owned and restored by the Canadian National Aviation Museum and acquired by the National Museum of the U.S. Air Force in 1999.
68. NMUW2B_120805_255.JPG: NOORDUYN UC-64A NORSEMAN Manufactured by the Noorduyn Aviation Ltd., Montreal, Canada, the UC-64A was a 10-place, single-engine utility transport. First flown in 1935, the Norseman was designed for rugged Canadian bush country operations; it could be equipped with wheels, floats or skis. Before World War II, Noorduyn delivered 69 to the Royal Canadian Air Force as trainers. After service testing seven YC-64s, the U.S. Army Air Forces adopted the aircraft in 1942 as a light transport. Noorduyn produced 762 Norseman for the USAAF before the war ended. Of these, 749 were UC-64As. Noorduyn produced the last Norseman in late 1959. Designed for and used in arctic areas, the Norseman was also employed in Europe and the Pacific during the war. On Dec. 15, 1944, a UC-64A disappeared on a flight from England to France with bandleader Maj. Glenn Miller on board. The aircraft was never found. The Norseman on display was acquired by the museum in March 1981. It is marked as a Norseman based in Alaska late in WWII.
69. NMUW2B_120805_258.JPG: GERMAN "FRITZ X" GUIDED BOMB The "Fritz X" (or PC 1400 X) was a 3,450-pound armor-piercing bomb fitted with a radio receiver and control surfaces in the tail. It was intended for use against heavily armored ship or ground targets. When dropped from 20,000 feet, an altitude above the most effective anti-aircraft defense, it could penetrate about 28 inches of armor. Aided by flares in the bomb's tail, the bombardier could follow its fall after release and could send radio signals, which moved the control surfaces and produced minor changes in the bomb's course. Later operational "Fritz X" bombs were wire-guided instead of radio-controlled to prevent jamming. The first operational use was on Aug. 29, 1943 -- over the Mediterranean -- and the most famous employment of "Fritz X" was the sinking of the Italian battleship Roma off Sardinia on Sept. 9, 1943, to prevent its surrender to the Allies. Between April 1943 and December 1944, about 1,386 of these weapons were produced; 602 were expended in testing and training. Its combat use was limited by the small number of Luftwaffe aircraft available to carry it and by its relatively poor accuracy, which averaged about 20 percent against Allied shipping.
70. NMUW2B_120805_263.JPG: CONSOLIDATED OA-10 CATALINA The OA-10 was the U.S. Army Air Forces' version of the PBY series flown extensively by the U.S. Navy during World War II. It was a twin-engine, parasol-mounted monoplane equipped with a flying boat hull, retractable tricycle landing gear and retractable wing-tip floats. The OA-10 operated primarily for air-sea rescue work ("DUMBO" missions) with the USAAF's Emergency Rescue Squadrons throughout WWII and for several years thereafter. During the war, OA-10 crews rescued hundreds of downed fliers. The prototype Catalina first flew on March 28, 1935, and the production version was built in both seaplane and amphibian versions. The Consolidated Aircraft Corp., along with Canadian Vickers Ltd. and the Naval Aircraft Factory, produced nearly 2,500 Catalinas; of these, the USAAF received approximately 380. The Brazilian Air Force was one of several Allied nations that received Catalinas during the war. It operated this Catalina in a variety of roles in the Amazon Basin until 1981. Flown to the museum in 1984, it was restored and painted as an OA-10A assigned to the 2nd Emergency Rescue Squadron in the Pacific Theater during WWII.
71. NMUW2B_120805_268.JPG: B-17 UPPER MACHINE GUN TURRET (TYPE A-1A) This turret was one of the first fully-powered machine gun turret designs used to equip American aircraft and was used initially on the B-17E Flying Fortress. It is operated by an electro-hydraulic system, which powers both elevation and traverse of the turret's two .50-cal. M2 Browning machine guns, and has a rate of fire of 1,400-1,600 rounds per minute. Turrets of this and later types gradually replaced manually-operated machine guns introduced for bomber defense during the First World War, and so made the bomber and more formidable opponent to attacking fighters. This turret was manufactured by the Emerson Manufacturing Co. to a Sperry Gyroscope Co. design and was donated to the museum by the Hobart Corp. of Troy, Ohio.
72. NMUW2B_120805_281.JPG: REPUBLIC/FORD JB-2 LOON (V-1 BUZZ BOMB) The JB-2 was a U.S.-made copy of the famous German V-1 surface-to-surface, pilotless flying bomb first used against England in June 1944. The Republic Aviation Corp. built the airframe for the JB-2 from drawings prepared at Wright Field, using dimensions taken from the remains of several V-1s brought from Germany. The Ford Motor Co. built the engine, which was a copy of the V-1's 900-lb. thrust Argus-Schmidt pulse-jet. Republic and Ford built 1,000 JB-2s for the Army and Navy. Production delivery began in January 1945, but the U.S. Army Air Forces cancelled further production when World War II ended. The first JB-2 test flight in took place at Eglin Field, Fla., in October 1944. Just before the end of the war, an aircraft carrier en route to the Pacific took on a load of JB-2s for possible use in the planned invasion of the Japanese home islands. Although never used in combat, the JB-2 provided valuable data for the design and construction of more advanced weapons. The JB-2 on display was obtained from the Continental Motors Corp., Muskegon, Mich., in December 1956. V-1 Buzz Bomb Operations: The V-1 was launched from a 200-ft. inclined ramp using a steam-powered catapult. Launching accelerated the missile to about 250 mph, fast enough for the winged bomb's jet engine to operate. Since the V-1's range was only around 150 miles, launch sites were set up on the French coast in order to bombard London. Magnetic compasses, a timer and a system of gyroscopes guided Buzz Bombs along a preset course and distance at an average altitude of 3,000 to 4,000 feet. When the course was complete, the 1-ton warhead armed automatically and the engine shut off. The bomb then free-fell onto its target. The V-1's unique pulse-jet engine gave the Buzz Bomb its nickname: Louvers opening and shutting rapidly near the intake made a distinctive buzzing noise as the engine's "pulsating" thrust gave the V-1 a cruising speed of about 360 mph. A single Luftwaffe Flak (antiaircraft) regiment launched all Buzz Bombs in combat. These specially chosen troops had good technical skills, and they trained at Peenemunde and other sites for months before setting up V-1 operations on the coasts of France and later Holland. Each of the 64 original V-1 units consisted of 55 soldiers and could usually launch one missile in an hour. Some V-1s were also launched from Heinkel He 111 bombers, but this effort was mostly unsuccessful. Germany produced more than 30,000 V-1s in 1944-1945, and an estimated 8,000+ actually reached England and Belgium between the first launch on June 12, 1944, and the last impact on March 30, 1945. About half the missiles fell within eight miles of their targets. Allied countermeasures included bombing launch sites, antiaircraft fire, barrage balloons with wires to snag the missiles, and fighter interception. The Allies dropped some 98,000 tons of bombs on V-1 launch and manufacturing sites. Combined defenses in England and on the continent destroyed a total of 6,176 Buzz Bombs, and an estimated 25 percent of V-1s launched crashed due to malfunction or manufacturing defects. In England, more than 6,000 people died in V-1 attacks, and another 18,000 were wounded.
73. NMUW2B_120805_311.JPG: FRENCH "FORTY AND EIGHT" RAILROAD CAR By the end of the 19th century, railroads made it possible to transport people and goods quickly over long distances, and this transportation revolution soon affected military operations. Armies became reliant upon railroads for supplies, and during World War I, men and supplies flowed to the trenches in railroad cars. A familiar sight to American "Doughboys" was the French "forty and eight" railroad cars, which carried them to the front. These cars received their names because they could carry 40 men or eight horses, as was clearly painted on each boxcar. During World War II, the little-changed "forty and eight" boxcars still transported supplies and troops to the front, but they also returned to Germany with new cargoes. Many Allied prisoners of war rode to German POW camps in these boxcars -- sometimes with as many as 90 men forced into each boxcar. Millions of Holocaust victims were herded into similar boxcars on their way to concentration camps. Boxcars such as the one on display carried 168 Allied POWs from Paris to the Buchenwald concentration camp in August 1944. Many POWs endured harsh conditions during their trips to POW camps, which sometimes included attacks from Allied aircraft. Constructed in France in 1943, this "forty and eight" railroad car operated in occupied France during WWII, and it most likely transported human cargoes from France to Germany. Withdrawn from service in the 1980s, the French Railroad Company (SNCF) used this railcar to store equipment at a railroad maintenance facility in Dijon, France. SNCF personnel painstakingly restored it to a near-original condition in honor of those American POWs transferred by "forty and eights." Assisted by the French military, the U.S. Air Force airlifted the 13-ton railcar from Istres Air Base, France, to the museum in late July 2001.
74. NMUW2B_120805_328.JPG: This boxcar was donated in 2001 by SNCF (the French National railroad) to the American Veterans of World War II who were transferred in it to Germany as prisoners of war. It was restored to its original condition by the railroad workers of SNCF's Rolling Stock Maintenance facility in Dijon.
75. NMUW2B_120805_334.JPG: WINGED BOOT: ESCAPE AND EVASION IN WORLD WAR II Air operations during World War II were often conducted far behind enemy lines, and thousands of U.S. Army Air Forces airmen evaded capture after they were brought down. Some of those who were captured escaped from prison camps and made their way back to Allied territory. Escape and evasion during WWII demanded skill and courage to return with honor. The global nature of World War II created new escape and evasion (or "E & E") challenges for airmen. For the first time, U.S. Army Air Forces (USAAF) airmen received specialized equipment and formal instruction in escape and evasion techniques. In Europe, an airman stood a good chance of making it back to friendly lines if he could evade initial capture by enemy forces. Often with the help of local inhabitants, three thousand American airmen blended into the population and became members of the "Blister Club" by walking out of German-occupied western Europe. Several hundred more escaped through Yugoslavia. By donning civilian clothing, however, they lost their Geneva Convention rights and ran the risk of being shot as spies if captured. Several hundred USAAF prisoners in Europe chose the risky prospect of escaping prisoner of war (POW) camps. When they left the relatively safety of POW camps, they took their lives in their own hands, and several were killed during escape attempts. Others were executed or sent to concentration camps as punishment for escape attempts. Escape and evasion in the Pacific and China-Burma-India (CBI) Theaters presented much greater difficulties for USAAF airmen. The vast expanses of the Pacific Ocean and the unforgiving terrain in the CBI made surviving the environment a priority for a downed airman. Furthermore, an evader could not "blend in" to the local population as they usually could in Europe. Even so, Chinese citizens helped hundreds of USAAF airmen evade, and many Chinese were brutally executed because of the help they provided. The problem of escape was even more difficult for an airman captured by the Japanese. Many were transported to Japan, making it virtually impossible for them to escape captivity. Even if they remained in prison camps in China or Burma, the surrounding jungle and mountainous terrain made it extremely difficult for a POW to survive an escape.
76. NMUW2B_120805_339.JPG: TWO ESCAPES: CAPT. JACK ILFREY Capt. Jack Ilfrey, an ace who ended the war with eight victories, twice escaped capture. In November 1942, on a ferry flight from England to North Africa, Ilfrey diverted to an airfield in neutral Portugal because of a malfunctioning drop tank. The Portuguese seized his P-38 and Ilfrey was to be interned. However, while sitting in the cockpit showing the Portuguese how to fly the now refueled aircraft, Ilfrey quickly started it up, took off and flew it to Gibraltar. On June 12, 1944, six days after the Allies invaded Normandy, Capt. Ilfrey was shot down by anti-aircraft fire while strafing a train near Angers, France. After bailing out of his burning P-38, he evaded until he met Jean Voileau. His family, at great risk to themselves, hid Ilfrey for two weeks in their home. The Voileau family gave him food, clothing, false identification, and a bicycle. Ilfrey posed as a deaf and mute French farmer named "Jacques Robert." Helped by several French civilians along the way, he rode the bicycle about 150 miles to friendly lines in Normandy. Unlike most successful evaders, Ilfrey returned to fly combat missions over Europe until the war ended.
77. NMUW2B_120805_344.JPG: THE KINDNESS OF STRANGERS: ESCAPE ROUTES AND THE RESISTANCE Resistance movements in Belgium, the Netherlands, France, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia worked with Allied intelligence to form escape networks. Countless other Europeans acted independently to help downed airmen. At the risk of death and torture to themselves and to their families from the Gestapo (German secret police), these brave "helpers" fed, clothed and sheltered Allied airmen. Several hundred "helpers" were sent to concentration camps as punishment and paid for their service with their lives.
78. NMUW2B_120805_349.JPG: MIS-X: THE U.S. ESCAPE AND EVASION EXPERTS Modeled on the British escape branch M.I.9, the top secret MIS-X (Military Intelligence Service-X) organization gave U.S. service personnel formal training and special tools for escape and evasion. Their efforts helped those airmen who were evading and those who had become POWs. MIS-X craftsmen modified common items found in POW aid packages to conceal hidden maps, radios, saws, compasses,and money, among other things. MIS-X also employed the help of several companies, which inserted material as part of the manufacturing process. To avoid compromising genuine aid societies, MIS-X sent these items to POWs in parcels shipped under the cover of fictitious aid organizations. MIS-X aided several of the 737 U.S. military members who successfully escaped from German POW camps during WWII. Perhaps more importantly, MIS-X maintained contact with U.S. POWs at 64 German camps, both giving and receiving useful and timely information from the so-called "barbed wire front." At the end of the war, the War Department disbanded MIS-X and most of the material related to this highly secret organization was destroyed.
79. NMUW2B_120805_353.JPG: ESCAPE AND EVASION ACCOUNTS Doolittle Raiders: After bombing Japan on April 18, 1942, all but one of the sixteen B-25 Doolittle Raid crews crashed or bailed out in China (The remaining crew landed in the USSR, and they successfully escaped internment in 1943). Thanks to the generous help of the Chinese people, 64 of the 75 crewmembers evaded capture. Flight Officer Charles Yeager: On March 5, 1944, a German Fw 190 pilot shot down and wounded Flight Officer (FO) Yeager fifty miles east of Bordeaux, France. French citizens quickly grabbed the downed fighter pilot, clothed him in a civilian suit, and hid him in a barn. With the assistance of the French escape network, twenty-three days and 100 miles later FO Yeager safely crossed the Spanish border. Flight Officer Yeager returned to his unit and shot down 10 1/2 more German aircraft before the end of the war (the half resulted from a shared victory). Capt. Bruce Carr: While evading after being shot down over Austria, Capt. Bruce Carr came across a German Fw 190 fighter on an airfield. Although he was completely unfamiliar with the aircraft and could not read the instrument panel, he started up the engine and flew the fighter back to his home airfield. Some USAAF POWs, hoping to match Carr's feat, drew up instrument panels and flight instructions like this one, drawn by 2nd Lt. Royal Frey.
80. NMUW2B_120805_365.JPG: This camera is one of 12 purchased by MIS-X to be sent covertly to POWs to take photographs for false identification cards. Capt. John Bennett, a POW at Stalag Luft III in Sagan, Poland, received this particular camera in early 1944.
81. NMUW2B_120805_369.JPG: Tools of the Trade: Flying boots were a telltale sign of an airmen. Equipped with a knife in the bootstrap, these British-made boots took on the appearance of common walking shoes after the upper portion was cut off.
82. NMUW2B_120805_376.JPG: Blood Chits "I am an American...misfortune forces me to seek your assistance..." Blood chits are documents that offer rewards to anyone who provides assistance to a downed flier. They also identify a flier's nationality and carry messages in several languages that request aid. Each blood chit is individually numbered to identify specific pilots. The first blood chits were used by British pilots in colonial police actions as early as 1917. The first Americans to carry blood chits served in the 14th Volunteer Bombardment Squadron in China during 1937-1938, while the best known blood chits were those used by the American Volunteer Group (or "Flying Tigers") in China during 1941-1942.
83. NMUW2B_120805_402.JPG: 12-way mouse trap
84. NMUW2B_120805_416.JPG: LOCKHEED P-38L LIGHTNING P-38 Lightning Development: The P-38 was originally conceived as an advanced, high-performance twin-engine interceptor. On Feb. 11, 1939, Lt. Ben Kelsey set a coast to coast record of 7 hours, 48 minutes in the sleek prototype Lightning, but crashed while landing. Despite the accident, development continued and the first of 13 service test YP-38s flew on Sept. 16, 1940. Early model P-38s experienced turbulent airflow over the tail and problems at high dive speeds, known as compressibility, but later modifications corrected these difficulties. The first major production version was the P-38E, which had a 20mm cannon rather than the earlier 37mm cannon. Production of the E began in September 1941 and 210 were built. The next version, the P-38F, introduced pylon racks that could carry either bombs or droppable fuel tanks, greatly extending its range. Production of the G began in August 1942, followed by the P-38H in May 1943, which had a more powerful version of the Allison V-1710 engine. The P-38J, introduced in August 1943, was considerably improved over earlier models. It had better cockpit heating (a notable problem on earlier models), more efficient cooling for its engines, a flat bulletproof windscreen, additional fuel in the wings, and increased maneuverability. P-38 Lightning in Service: The versatile Lightning performed many different missions during World War II, including dive bombing, level bombing, bombing through clouds, strafing, photo reconnaissance and long range escort. It first went into large-scale service during the North African campaign in November 1942, where the German pilots named it Der Gabelschwanz Teufel ("The Forked-Tail Devil"). When the Lightning began combat operations from England in September 1943, it was the only fighter with the range to escort bombers into Germany. The Lightning truly shined in the Pacific theater; seven of the top eight scoring USAAF aces in the Pacific flew the P-38. On April 18, 1943, the long range of the P-38 enabled USAAF pilots to ambush and shoot down an aircraft carrying Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, who was the planner of the Pearl Harbor raid and the commander of the Imperial Japanese Navy. The P-38 became the standard USAAF fighter in the Pacific theater until the closing months of WWII. The Museum's Aircraft: The final production version was the P-38L, which could carry two 300-gallon drop tanks. Deliveries of the L began in June 1944 and continued until August 1945. Of the 10,038 P-38s built, 3,923 were P-38Ls. The P-38L on display, painted as a P-38J with the 55th Fighter Squadron based in England, was donated to the museum in 1961 by the Kaufmann Foundation, Philadelphia, Penn. The top hats on the left side of the aircraft represent the nine bomber escort missions flown by its pilot, 2nd Lt. Royal D. Frey, with the yellow hat signifying five and the white hats one each.
85. NMUW2B_120805_457.JPG: BOEING B-29 SUPERFORTRESS The B-29 on display, Bockscar, dropped the Fat Man atomic bomb on Nagasaki on Aug. 9, 1945, three days after the atomic attack against Hiroshima. Bockscar was one of 15 specially modified "Silverplate" B-29s assigned to the 509th Composite Group. Most B-29s carried eight .50-cal. machine guns in remote controlled turrets, two .50-cal. machine guns and one 20mm cannon in a tail turret, and up to 20,000 pounds of bombs. Silverplate B-29s, however, retained only the tail turret and had their armor removed to save weight so that the heavy atomic bombs of the time could be carried over a longer distance. Designed in 1940 as an eventual replacement for the B-17 and B-24, the first B-29 made its maiden flight on Sept. 21, 1942. In December 1943 U.S. Army Air Forces leadership committed the Superfortress to Asia, where its great range made it particularly suited for the long over-water flights against the Japanese homeland from bases in China. During the last two months of 1944, B-29s began operating against Japan from the islands of Saipan, Guam and Tinian. With the advent of the conflict in Korea in June 1950, the B-29 returned to combat. Although vulnerable to MiG-15 jet fighter attacks, the Superfortress remained effective against several types of targets throughout the Korean War. Bockscar was flown to the museum on Sept. 26, 1961.
86. NMUW2B_120805_460.JPG: "BOCKSCAR": THE AIRCRAFT THAT ENDED WWII By August 1945, U.S. Navy submarines and aerial mining by the Army Air Forces severely restricted Japanese shipping. The AAF controlled the skies over Japan and the AAF's B-29 bombing attacks crippled its war industry. A plan for the invasion of Japan had been drawn up; Operation Olympic was scheduled for November 1945. Estimates of Allied casualties ranged from 250,000 to a million with much greater losses to the Japanese. To repel invaders, Japan had a veteran army of some two million ready, an army that had already shown its ferocity and fanaticism in combat. Some 8,000 military aircraft were available that could be used for devastating Kamikaze (suicide) attacks on U.S. ships. The draft had been extended to include men from age 15 to 60 and women from 17 to 45, adding millions of civilians ready to defend their homeland to the death, with sharpened sticks if necessary. Experience throughout the Pacific war had shown that Japanese combat casualties had run from five to 20 times those suffered by the Allies, particularly in the battles of the Philippines and Okinawa. Whatever the predicted Allied losses, the potential Japanese military and civilian casualties would have been staggering. Whether Japan would have surrendered prior to invasion without the use of the atomic bombs is a question that can never be answered. Using the history and projections available to him, President Harry Truman made the grave decision to use the atomic bomb in an effort to end the war quickly, thus avoiding a costly invasion.
87. NMUW2B_120805_470.JPG: THE AFTERMATH OF THE MISSION Even after the second atomic bomb attack, disagreement raged within the Japanese government between peace advocates and those who urged continued resistance. An attempted coup by militant extremists failed, and on Aug. 14, Japan surrendered unconditionally. In a break with tradition, Emperor Hirohito announced the surrender in a recorded radio message. Japan accepted the terms of the July 26 Potsdam Declaration calling for unconditional surrender -- terms which the Japanese had rejected previously. This was the first time the Japanese people had ever heard their emperor's voice, and some Japanese officers committed suicide upon hearing his decision. On Aug. 28, U.S. aircraft began landing the first occupation forces at Tokyo. B-29s now were flying relief missions, dropping food, medicine and other supplies to U.S. Allied prisoners at some 150 Japanese prisoner-of-war camps. Americans generally felt no moral dilemma over the dropping of the atomic bombs. The surrender ended more than a decade of Japanese aggression in Asia and the Pacific. After three and one-half years of brutal warfare following Pearl Harbor, Americans anxiously awaited the homecoming of surviving service personnel and a return to peacetime normalcy. To an American POW working in a coal mine near Nagasaki when the atomic bomb detonated, the bomb meant survival. He weighed only 98 pounds after 40 months of captivity.
88. NMUW2B_120805_477.JPG: THE MISSION The world entered a new era on Aug. 6, 1945, when the crew of the B-29 Enola Gay released an atomic bomb over Hiroshima, Japan. Maj. Charles W. Sweeney, commander of the 393rd Bomb Squadron, accompanied the Enola Gay on the mission, piloting the B-29 The Great Artiste as an observation aircraft. The devastation caused by the bomb brought no response to the demand for unconditional surrender, and conventional bombing raids continued. On Aug. 9, with Sweeney at the controls, B-29 Bockscar took off before dawn from the island of Tinian with a second atomic bomb aboard (only two bombs were available). To eliminate the need to remove and reinstall complex scientific equipment from The Great Artiste, Sweeney and Capt. Frederick C. Bock had exchanged aircraft. Thus Sweeney and his crew flew Bockscar, while The Great Artiste repeated its role as the observation aircraft, but with Bock and his crew aboard. The primary target was the city of Kokura, but clouds obscured it. With fuel running low due to a fuel transfer problem, Sweeney proceeded to the secondary target -- Nagasaki, a leading industrial center. There was enough fuel for only one bombing run, and a last minute break in the clouds allowed the bombardier to bomb visually as specified by the field order. When the bomb detonated at 11 a.m. Nagasaki time, it felt as though Bockscar was "being beaten with a telephone pole," said a crew member. With fuel critically low, Sweeney turned toward Okinawa where he landed to refuel before returning to Tinian.
89. NMUW2B_120805_484.JPG: THE AIRCRAFT The Boeing-designed B-29 No. 44-27297 was built by the Glenn L. Martin Co. at Omaha, Neb., at a cost of about $639,000. It was accepted by the USAAF on April 19, 1945, and was delivered to the 393rd Bomb Squadron at Wendover Field in the Utah salt flats. There, aircrews of the 509th Composite Group were engaged in intensive training under a cloak of secrecy. In June aircraft and crew flew to Tinian Island in the Marianas. From there, Bockscar, named for its pilot Frederick C. Bock, flew five bombing missions. On four of these, a 10,000-pound bomb loaded with high explosives was dropped. Nicknamed "pumpkin" bombs because of their shape and orange color, these were of the same size and shape as the actual "Fat Man" atomic bomb dropped at Nagasaki. After Japan surrendered, Bockscar and the 393rd Bomb Squadron were reassigned to Roswell Field, N.M. In error, The Great Artiste was named in some official reports as the Superfortress that dropped the atomic bomb at Nagasaki. This mistake was discovered when preparations were made to preserve the aircraft for later museum display. When the discrepancy was found, it was Bockscar that was retired in September 1946 to the desert storage facility at Davis-Monthan field near Tucson, Ariz. There it remained until September 1961 when it made one more flight to Wright-Patterson Air Force Base to become part of the growing collection of display aircraft at the museum. Today, about a million visitors each year view Bockscar, the aircraft that ended the world's most costly war.
90. NMUW2B_120805_496.JPG: "LITTLE BOY" ATOMIC BOMB The Mk I bomb, nicknamed "Little Boy," was the first nuclear weapon used in warfare. It was delivered by the B-29 Enola Gay (on display at the Smithsonian National Air & Space Museum), it detonated at an altitude of 1,800 feet over Hiroshima, Japan, on Aug. 6, 1945. The result of the Manhattan Project, begun in June 1942, "Little Boy" was a gun-type weapon, which detonated by firing one mass of uranium down a cylinder into another mass to create a self-sustaining nuclear reaction. Weighing about 9,000 pounds, it produced an explosive force equal to 20,000 tons of TNT. When constructed in 1945, the "Little Boy" on display was an operational weapon, but it has been completely demilitarized for display purposes. In 2004 the Department of Energy repaired and repainted the artifact at its Sandia National Laboratories in Albuquerque, N.M.
91. NMUW2B_120805_507.JPG: "LITTLE BOY" ATOMIC BOMB The Mk I bomb, nicknamed "Little Boy," was the first nuclear weapon used in warfare. It was delivered by the B-29 Enola Gay (on display at the Smithsonian National Air & Space Museum), it detonated at an altitude of 1,800 feet over Hiroshima, Japan, on Aug. 6, 1945. The result of the Manhattan Project, begun in June 1942, "Little Boy" was a gun-type weapon, which detonated by firing one mass of uranium down a cylinder into another mass to create a self-sustaining nuclear reaction. Weighing about 9,000 pounds, it produced an explosive force equal to 20,000 tons of TNT. When constructed in 1945, the "Little Boy" on display was an operational weapon, but it has been completely demilitarized for display purposes. In 2004 the Department of Energy repaired and repainted the artifact at its Sandia National Laboratories in Albuquerque, N.M.
92. NMUW2B_120805_512.JPG: "FAT MAN" ATOMIC BOMB A "Fat Man" bomb was dropped over Nagasaki, Japan, on Aug. 9, 1945, near the end of World War II. Released by the B-29 Bockscar, the 10,000-pound weapon was detonated at an altitude of approximately 1,800 feet over the city. The bomb had an explosive force (yield) of about 20,000 tons of TNT, about the same as the bomb dropped on Hiroshima. Because of Nagasaki's hilly terrain, however, the damage was somewhat less extensive than of the relatively flat Hiroshima. "Fat Man" was an implosion-type weapon using plutonium. A subcritical sphere of plutonium was placed in the center of a hollow sphere of high explosive (HE). Numerous detonators located on the surface of the HE were fired simultaneously to produce a powerful inward pressure on the capsule, squeezing it and increasing its density. This resulted in a supercritical condition and a nuclear explosion.
93. NMUW2B_120805_519.JPG: NORTHROP P-61C BLACK WIDOW The heavily-armed Black Widow was the United States' first aircraft specifically designed as a night-fighter. The P-61 carried radar equipment in its nose that enabled its crew of two or three to locate enemy aircraft in total darkness and fly into proper position to attack. The XP-61 was flight-tested in 1942 and the delivery of production aircraft began in late 1943. The P-61 flew its first operational intercept mission as a night fighter in Europe on July 3, 1944, and later was also used as a night intruder over enemy territory. In the Pacific, a Black Widow claimed its first "kill" on the night of July 6, 1944. As P-61s became available, they replaced interim Douglas P-70s and Bristol Beaufighters in all USAAF night fighter squadrons. During World War II, Northrop built approximately 700 P-61s; 41 of these were C models manufactured in the summer of 1945 offering greater speed and capable of operating at higher altitude. The Black Widow on display was presented to the museum by the Tecumseh Council, Boy Scouts of America, Springfield, Ohio, in 1958. It is painted and marked as a P-61B assigned to the 550th Night Fighter Squadron serving in the Pacific in 1945.
94. NMUW2B_120805_534.JPG: SIKORSKY R-4B HOVERFLY Developed by Igor Sikorsky from his famous VS-300 experimental helicopter, the R-4 became the world's first production helicopter, and the U.S. Army Air Force's first service helicopter. The prototype XR-4 made its initial flight on Jan. 13, 1942, and as a result of its successful flight tests, the USAAF ordered three YR-4As and 27 YR-4Bs for service testing and flight training. Of these, one went to Burma and one to Alaska, while several others were assigned to the U.S. Navy, U.S. Coast Guard and British Royal Navy. They showed such promise that the USAAF ordered 100 R-4Bs. The R-4 was first used in combat in May 1944. In a letter to a friend, Col. Philip G. Cochran, commanding officer of the 1st Air Commando Group, wrote "Today the 'egg-beater' went into action and the damn thing acted like it had good sense." The R-4B on display was donated to the museum by the University of Illinois in 1967.
95. NMUW2B_120805_579.JPG: There had been a lot of rain. The plastic sheet was to protect the artifact.
96. NMUW2B_120805_581.JPG: WWII IMPERIAL JAPANESE NAVY AIRCREWS It was a great honor in Japan to become a naval aviator. Early in World War II, Imperial Japanese Navy pilots went through a rigorous and at times brutal cadet program. Later, as these experienced airmen became casualties of war, hastily trained pilots replaced them. Imperial Japanese Navy Petty Officer's Service Uniform: This is the uniform of a senior petty officer in the Imperial Japanese Navy. The blue chrysanthemum on the sleeve marks him as a naval aviator. (Donated by Masajiro Kawato and the Nakata War Museum) Imperial Japanese Naval Pilot's Suit: This is a replica of a typical summer flying suit for an Imperial Japanese Navy fighter pilot during WWII. The kapok-filled life vest is genuine and contrasted with the air-filled Mae West life vest that was used by the USAAF. Kapok is made from the buoyant fiber covering the seeds of the ceiba tree. (Donated by Masajiro Kawato and the Nakata War Museum) Prayer Belt: Also known as a "Belt of a Thousand Stitches," it was supposed to protect its wearer from harm. Mothers, wives, and sisters made the belts by petitioning other women to add one stitch each until there were a thousand.
97. NMUW2B_120805_584.JPG: WWII LUFTWAFFE AIRCREWS By the fall of 1944, Luftwaffe (German Air Force) pilots faced the impossible task of defending Germany against the huge, escorted bomber formations of the USAAF by day and the Royal Air Force by night. By this time, many of its best fighter aces had been killed and replaced with inexperienced, poorly trained pilots. Luftwaffe Fighter Pilot: The mannequin on the left wears typical flight gear for a Luftwaffe fighter pilot in late 1944. Of particular interest are the white plastic zippers on the inseam of his flying trousers (or "Channel pants"). Increasing shortages of material caused by Allied bombing forced clothing manufacturers to replace metal with plastic. German Fighter Pilot Service Dress: This mannequin represents the service dress for a Luftwaffe fighter pilot with the rank of Hauptmann (or captain). The "day fighter clasp" above the left breast pocket identifies him as a fighter pilot. On his left breast pocket is a pilot's badge (an eagle over a laurel wreath), an Iron Cross First Class, and a black wound badge. Officer's tropical service cap typically worn by Luftwaffe pilots in the Mediterranean Theater. Enlisted Luftwaffe personnel wore woolen eagles on their right breast like the one displayed here. Officers wore eagles made of aluminum bouillon like the one on the mannequin.
98. NMUW2B_120805_587.JPG: WWII ROYAL AIR FORCE AIRCREWS At the beginning of World War II in 1939, most pilots serving in the Royal Air Force (RAF) were British-born. As the war continued, airmen came from many different countries. Foreign-born RAF pilots sometimes flew as independent units and other times they were mixed in with British-born aircrews. They included members of the British Commonwealth, such as Canada, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, along with volunteers from the United States and occupied countries such as Norway, Poland and Czechoslovakia. RAF Group Captain's Service Uniform: This officer is wearing the standard service uniform for an RAF pilot. The stripes on his lower sleeves identify him as a group commander. RAF Flying Uniform: Flying clothing worn by RAF aircrews varied to a great degree depending on the mission and the personal preference of the individual. Fighter pilots often wore a prized Irvin jacket over their service uniform, like the mannequin on display. Worn over the flying clothing is an inflatable life vest should he go down over water. RAF Emergency Whistle: Attached to the life vest, this whistle could be used to signal nearby rescuers or other airmen in the water. RAF Life Vest Light: This emergency light was attached to the life vest with a clip. Its battery provided about 12 hours of light to help searchers find a downed airman. Eight-Day Clock: This eight-day clock was used in the Spitfire fighter. When fully wound, it operated for up to eight days without rewinding.
99. NMUW2B_120805_595.JPG: Distinguished Flying Cross awarded to the donor for his participation in the atomic raid against Nagasaki.
100. NMUW2B_120805_606.JPG: M-8 flare pistol used by Lt. Fred Olivi, third pilot on the B-29 Bockscar, on the atomic bomb mission against Nagasaki. Pistol was used to shoot flares as Bockscar prepared to make an emergency landing at Okinawa due to low fuel supply.
101. NMUW2B_120805_614.JPG: Goggles issued to protect his eyes from the brilliant flash when the Fat Man bomb detonated over Nagasaki.
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Wikipedia Description: National Museum of the United States Air Force
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The National Museum of the United States Air Force (formerly the United States Air Force Museum) is the official national museum of the United States Air Force and is located on Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, in Riverside, Ohio, just east of Dayton. Over 300 aircraft and missiles are on display, most of them indoors. Admission is free.

Exhibits:
The museum has many rare and important aircraft and other exhibits, including one of four surviving Convair B-36s, the only surviving XB-70 Valkyrie, and Bockscar—the B-29 Superfortress that dropped the second atomic bomb in World War II. In contrast to its better-known Smithsonian counterpart, nearly all of the museum's exhibits are extremely accessible. Most are easily touched, even investigated, by visitors.

Presidential aircraft:
The museum has several Presidential aircraft, including those used by Franklin D. Roosevelt, Harry Truman, and Dwight D. Eisenhower. The centerpiece of the Presidential aircraft collection is SAM 26000, the first aircraft to be called Air Force One, a modified Boeing 707 used by Presidents John F. Kennedy through Richard Nixon during his first term, after which served as the backup Presidential aircraft. That aircraft was most used by Lyndon B. Johnson.

Pioneers of flight:
There is a large section of the museum dedicated to pioneers of flight, especially the Wright Brothers, who conducted some of their experiments at nearby Huffman Prairie. A replica of the Wright's 1909 Military Flyer is on display, as well as other Wright Brothers artifacts. The building also hosts the National Aviation Hall of Fame, which includes several educational exhibits.

Uniforms & clothing:
The museum has a large inventory of USAAF and Air Force clothing and uniforms in its collection. At any time over fifty WWII vintage A-2 leather flying jackets are on display, many of which belonged to famous figures in Air Force history. Others are beautifully painted to depict the airplanes and missions flown by their former owners. Included in the museum's displays are the jacket worn by Gen. Jimmy Stewart, P-38 ace Maj. Richard I. Bong's B-3 sheepskin B-3 jacket and boots, an A-2 jacket worn by one of the few USAAF pilots to leave the ground during the attack on Pearl Harbor, and President Ronald Reagan's peacoat.

Other exhibits and attractions:
The museum completed the construction of a third hangar and hall of missiles in 2004. It now houses Cold War-era planes such as the B-2 Spirit stealth bomber (test aircraft), the F-117 Nighthawk stealth fighter and others. Fundraising has begun for a fourth hangar to house the museum's space collection, presidential planes and an enlarged educational outreach area, making all more accessible to the public.

The museum has an IMAX theatre that mainly features aviation and space oriented IMAX films. There is a charge for these films.

The museum owns other aircraft that are on loan to other aerospace museums in the United States. Most of these loaned aircraft duplicate aircraft that are exhibited by the museum. The museum's staff has very high standards for the quality of care/restoration of loaned assets, and has, in the past revoked these loans when it was deemed that these other museums did not have the resources to properly care for an artifact. This happened in the case of the famous B-17, Memphis Belle.

History:
The museum dates back to 1923 when the Engineering Division at Dayton's McCook Field first collected technical artifacts for preservation. In 1927 it moved to then-Wright Field and was housed in a succession of buildings. In 1954 as the Air Force Museum it was housed in its first permanent facility, Building 89 of the former Patterson Field in Fairborn, which had been an engine overhaul hangar, and many of its aircraft were parked outside and exposed to the weather. It remained there until 1971 when the current facility was first opened. Not including its annex on Wright Field proper, the museum has more than tripled in square footage since its inception in 1971.

Partial List of Collection:

Building an Air Arm (1907-1917)
Wright Brothers 1901 wind tunnel
Wright 1909 Military Flyer
Curtiss 1911 Model D
Wright Brothers 1911 Wind Tunnel
Bleriot Monoplane (France)

World War I:

Caquot Type R Observation Dirigeable during the First World War.SPAD VII (France - used by U.S. Lafayette Escadrille)
Curtiss JN-4D "Jenny" (trainer)
Standard J-1 (trainer)
Thomas-Morse S4C Scout (trainer)
Avro 504K (trainer)
Nieuport N.28C-1
Sopwith F-1 Camel (Great Britain, used by United States Army Air Service)
Fokker Dr.I (Germany)
Caquot Type R Observation Dirigeable (France - used by United States Army)
Halberstadt CL IV (Germany)
SPAD XIII (France)
Fokker D.VII (Germany)
Kettering Bug Aerial Torpedo (U.S - First cruise missile)
Caproni Ca.36 (Italy)

Inter-War Years:

De Havilland DH-4 (U.S. built from a British design)
Martin MB-2 (First U.S. designed bomber)
Loening OA-1A (observation amphibian aircraft)
Consolidated PT-1 "Trusty" (trainer)
Boeing P-12E
Curtiss P-6E
Boeing P-26A Peashooter
Martin B-10
Douglas O-38F
Douglas O-46A
North American O-47B
Curtiss O-52 Owl
North American BT-9B (trainer)
Stearman PT-13D Kaydet (trainer)
Fairchild PT-19 Cornell (trainer)

World War II:

Hawker Hurricane Mark.IIa (Great Britain)
Bristol Beaufighter Mk. I
De Havilland DH 82A Tiger Moth (Great Britain)
De Havilland Mosquito
Curtiss P-36A Hawk
Curtiss AT-9 "Jeep"
Mitsubishi A6M2 "Zero" (Japan)
Douglas B-18 Bolo
Seversky P-35
Douglas A-24 Dauntless
Taylorcraft L-2M Grasshopper (observation)
North American B-25B Mitchell (Part of a display commemorating the Doolittle Raid)
Bell P-39Q Airacobra
Curtiss P-40E Warhawk (Flying Tigers paint scheme)
Ryan PT-22 Recruit (trainer)
Vultee BT-13 Valiant (bombing trainer)
Supermarine Spitfire Mark. Vc (Great Britain)
Supermarine Spitfire PR. XI
Macchi MC.200 Saetta (Italy)
Fieseler Fi 156C-1 Storch (Germany)
Noorduyn Norseman (Canada)
North American A-36A Apache
Consolidated B-24D Liberator
Lockheed P-38L Lightning
Martin B-26G Marauder
Republic P-47D Thunderbolt
Douglas C-47D Skytrain
Messerschmitt Bf 109G-10 Gustav (Germany)
Focke-Wulf Fw 190D-9 (Germany)
Messerschmitt Me 163B Komet (Germany)
Messerschmitt Me 262A Schwalbe (Germany)
Junkers Ju-88D (Germany)
Fieseler Fi 103 (V-1) "Buzz Bomb" (Germany)
V-2 with Meilerwagen (Germany)
Boeing B-17G Flying Fortress Shoo Shoo Baby
The Memphis Belle, the legendary B17-F, is at the museum and is being restored and when complete, will become the museum's principal specimen of the B-17
North American P-51D Mustang
Curtiss C-46D Commando
Consolidated OA-10 Catalina (Army Air Forces variant of the PBY Catalina)
Sikorsky R-4B Hoverfly (world's first production helicopter and the Army Air Force's first service helicopter)
Douglas A-20G Havoc
Northrop P-61C Black Widow
Kawanishi N1K2-J Shiden-Kai "George-21" (Japan)
Yokosuka Ohka Trainer (Japan)
Boeing B-29 Superfortress Bockscar - Aircraft that dropped atomic bomb nicknamed Fat Man on Nagasaki

Korean War:

North American F-82B Twin Mustang
Lockheed F-80C Shooting Star (First operational U.S. jet fighter)
North American F-86A Sabre
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15bis 'Fagot' (USSR - this aircraft was landed in Japan by a defector and later test flown by Chuck Yeager)
Lockheed F-94A Starfire
Republic F-84E Thunderjet
North American T-6 Mosquito (forward air control version of T-6 Texan trainer)
North American B-45C Tornado
Douglas C-124C Globemaster II
Sikorsky YH-5A
Sikorsky UH-19B Chickasaw
Douglas A-26C Invader
Fairchild C-82 Packet
Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar

Vietnam War:

North American F-100F Super Sabre
Douglas A-1E Skyraider
Cessna YA-37A Dragonfly
Martin EB-57B Canberra (U.S. manufactured version of British design)
Northrop YF-5A Skoshi Tiger
Cessna O-1G Bird Dog (forward air control)
Cessna O-2 ASkymaster (forward air control)
North American OV-10A Bronco
Kaman HH-43B Huskie
Sikorsky CH-3E
Bell UH-1P Iroquois
De Havilland Canada C-7 Caribou
Fairchild C-123K Provider
Douglas RB-66B Destroyer
Lockheed EC-121D Warning Star
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-17 'Fresco' (USSR)
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21PF 'Fishbed' (USSR)
Republic F-105D Thunderchief (besides the fighter version, there is also a Wild Weasel F-105G version on display)
McDonnell Douglas F-4C Phantom II
Boeing B-52D Stratofortress
Ling-Temco-Vought A-7D Corsair II
General Dynamics F-111A Aardvark
Lockheed C-141 Starlifter Hanoi Taxi

Cold War:

Convair B-36J "Peacemaker"
Boeing WB-50D Superfortress (weather reconnaissance variant)
Piasecki CH-21B Workhorse
De Havilland Canada U-6A Beaver
Boeing KC-97L Stratotanker (aerial refueling tanker)
Republic F-84F Thunderstreak
Northrop F-89 Scorpion
Lockheed F-104C Starfighter
Convair B-58 Hustler
Boeing RB-47H (reconnaissance variant)
Lockheed U-2A
McDonnell F-101 Voodoo and (there is also the RF-101 reconnaissance variant on display)
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-19S 'Farmer' (USSR)
Sukhoi Su-22 "Fitter" (USSR)
Douglas C-133 Cargomaster
Convair F-102A Delta Dagger
Convair F-106A Delta Dart
Lockheed SR-71A Blackbird
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 Flogger
Dassault Mystere IV A

Post Cold War:

Lockheed F-117A Nighthawk
Lockheed AC-130A Spectre "Azrael"
Fairchild Republic A-10A Thunderbolt II
Panavia Tornado (Great Britain)
Rockwell B-1B Lancer
Northrop B-2A Spirit (static test mock-up)
Northrop YF-23 Black Widow II
Lockheed-Boeing-General Dynamics YF-22 Raptor
General Atomics RQ-1A Predator
Boeing X-32 Joint Strike Fighter
Mikoyan-Gurevich Mikoyan MiG-29 "Fulcrum" (USSR)

Presidential Aircraft:

Douglas VC-54C Sacred Cow
Used by Franklin Delano Roosevelt and first 27 months of Harry Truman's administration
The National Security Act of 1947, creating the United States Air Force, was signed aboard this aircraft
Douglas VC-118 Independence
used by Harry Truman
Lockheed VC-121E Columbine III
Used by Dwight D. Eisenhower
Bell UH-13J Sioux
Used by Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy
Boeing VC-137C - SAM 26000 (Boeing 707 - first aircraft called Air Force One)
Used by John F. Kennedy, Lyndon Johnson, and Richard Nixon during his first term.
Beech VC-6A Lady Bird Special (King Air B90)
Used by Lyndon Johnson for frequent trips from Austin, Texas to LBJ Ranch
Aero Commander U-4B (military version of L-26 Aero Commander)
Used by Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1956 to 1960 for short trips
North American T-39A Sabreliner
Used to transport Lyndon Johnson after leaving office
Lockheed VC-140B JetStar
Used by Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, Jimmy Carter and Ronald Reagan for trips requiring a smaller aircraft

Research and Development Aircraft:
Bell P-59B Airacomet
Boeing EC-135 Stratolifter (modified) ARIA Bird of Prey
Fisher P-75A Eagle
Convair XP-81
Republic XF-91 Thunderceptor
Convair XF-92A
Convair XC-99
McDonnell XF-85 Goblin
McDonnell XF-90
Republic YRF-84F FICON (prototype of F-84)
Republic XF-84H (turboprop version of F-84)
North American F-107A
Lockheed YF-12A
North American XB-70 Valkyrie
LTV XC-142A (Tiltwing research)
Lockheed NT-33A
Piper PA-48 Enforcer
Northrop Tacit Blue (Whale) (stealth low observable demonstrator)
McDonnell Douglas F-15 Streak Eagle (time-to-climb record holder)
Bell X-1B
Douglas X-3 Stiletto
Northrop X-4 Bantam
Bell X-5
Lockheed X-7A
North American X-10
Ryan X-13 Vertijet
North American X-15 (Hypersonic record holder)
Curtiss-Wright X-19
Grumman X-29A
NASA/Boeing X-36
Boeing X-45 Unmanned Combat Air Vehicle
Boeing Bird of Prey
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2012 photos: Trips this year: three Civil War Trust conferences (Shepherdstown, WV, Richmond, VA, and Williamsburg, VA), a week-long family reunion cruise of the Caribbean, another week-long family reunion in the Wisconsin Dells (with lots of in-transit time in Ohio and Indiana), and my 7th consecutive San Diego Comic-Con trip (including side trips to Zion, Bryce, the Grand Canyon, etc). Ego strokes: I had a picture of Miss DC, Ashley Boalch, published in the Washington Post. I had a photograph of the George Segal San Francisco Holocaust memorial used as the cover of Quebec Francais (issue 165). Not being able to read French, I'm not entirely sure what the article is about but, hey! And I guess what could be considered to be a positive thing, my site is now established enough that spammers have noticed it and I had to block 17,000 file description postings for Viagra and whatever else.. Equipment this year: My mainstays were the Fuji S100fs, Nikon D7000, and the new Fuji X-S1. I also used an underwater Fuji XP50 and a Nikon D600. The first three cameras all broke this year and had to be repaired. Number of photos taken this year: just below 410,000.
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