BGuthrie Photos: DC -- Ford's Theatre NHS (Center for Education and Leadership) -- Exhibit: The Test: Tuskegee Airmen

DC -- Ford's Theatre NHS (Center for Education and Leadership) -- Exhibit: The Test: Tuskegee Airmen:

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Description of Pictures: The Test: The Tuskegee Airmen Project
August 29–October 21, 2012
Special Exhibition in the Center for Education and Leadership

The Test details the training of the first African-American aviators in U.S. Military history and follows their ground-breaking training, deployment and service in World War II. It tells the incredible story of men in war struggling to be the best servicemen and Americans they can be as they struggle against the prejudices of their countrymen.

Part of an effort by the War Department to determine if African Americans had the capabilities to be effective combat aviators, the "Tuskegee Experiment,” as it became known, began in 1941 in the months prior to the bombing of Pearl Harbor and the United States’ entry into the Second World War. It ended with the deactivation of the 332nd Fighter Group in 1949 after President Truman signed Executive Order No. 9981, which ended segregation in the Armed Forces.

Incorporating information on race relations in America before World War II and African-American involvement in early aviation, The Test includes photographs, models, maps and stories of the men, the aircraft they flew and the operations in which they participated.

This exhibition is shown in conjunction with our production of Fly.

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Copyrights: All pictures were taken by amateur photographer Bruce Guthrie (me!) who retains copyright on them. Free for non-commercial use with attribution. See the [Creative Commons] definition of what this means. "Photos (c) Bruce Guthrie" is fine for attribution. (Commercial use folks including AI scrapers can of course contact me.) Feel free to use in publications and pages with attribution but you don't have permission to sell the photos themselves. A free copy of any printed publication using any photographs is requested. Descriptive text, if any, is from a mixture of sources, quite frequently from signs at the location or from official web sites; copyrights, if any, are retained by their original owners.

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Specific picture descriptions: Photos above with "i" icons next to the bracketed sequence numbers (e.g. "[1] ") are described as follows:
1. TUSK_120829_009.JPG: The Test: The Tuskegee Project: In April 1943 after months of training and preparation, the 99th Fighter Squadron, an aviation unit that consisted entirely of African-American personnel landed in North Africa. This was the beginning of the test phase of an experiment that began many months before at the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama to determine if black men were capable of being effective combat aviators. This exhibition tells the story of the first African-American Aviators to serve in the military of the United States. It is a story about their struggles in combat overseas and against prejudice and racism in America. It is a very fascinating story that every American should know. White it is a very exciting story about men in war, flying incredible machines, locked in mortal combat miles above the earth, it is also a quintessential story about the continuing struggle to make America live up to its ideals, the struggle of every generation to make America more American.
2. TUSK_120829_019.JPG: America in 1941: In regards to race, the America of 1941 was a very different place when compared to the America of today. In the 76 years since the end of the American Civil War, the status of African Americans had not improved a great deal. In fact, in some parts of America this status had declined markedly since the end of Reconstruction. The Post-Reconstruction rise of White Supremacy in the American South greatly curtailed opportunities for social, economical and political advancement. In 1896, the Supreme Court dealt another blow to the status of African-Americans by ruling in the landmark case Plessy v Ferguson which mandated "Separate but Equal" services and facilities thereby legalizing already widely practiced segregation. Separate but Equal would remain a law of the land until May 1954 when the courts overturned the law with the Brown v Board of Education decision. Lynchings and other forms of intimidation were commonplace. This oppression would lead many African Americans to abandon the South in large population shifts to the North, Midwest and West. This search for a better life would become known as the Great Migration. By 1941, Black Americans lived in a separate self-sustaining society. In many places a rich African-American culture had grown and flourished. It was a distinct society with its own schools and institutions of higher learning, its own music and arts, its own foods, its own heros [sic] and heroines. The Harlem Renaissance is probably the most noted example. An important part of this culture was a strong very well organized middle-class which valued education and advancement. The church, the black press, service and social organizations were particularly adept at moving the community to action. Without the pressure these organization[s] applied to the National Government and the War Department, it is hard to imagine the African-American aviation units ever came into existence. The Pittsburgh Courier, the largest African-American newspaper of the day, was able to mobilize Black America behind a "Double V" campaign which called for victory against fascism overseas and racial prejudice at home. Many believed the "Double V" campaign was an important precursor of the Civil Rights Movement of the latter part of the 20th Century.
3. TUSK_120829_022.JPG: Doors Open: In the late 1930's, opportunities for African-Americans in aviation particularly in military aviation began to increase significantly. These opportunities maybe [sic] attributed to a number of factors including the threat of war in Europe and the expansion of the Army Air Corps. However, the most important factor was the demands of an organized and more politically empowered black community for more equitable treatment. In the early half of the Twentieth Century African-Americans experienced a new black consciousness. Black Americans in response to inequities in American mainstay society looked inward. During this period there was an incredible growth in the number of social and business organizations that existed to serve the Black-American community. Organizations such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP est in 1909) and The National Urban League (est. in 1910) were established to address social issues. Black businesses of all sizes and types services a population that wanted to be treated as full-fledged citizens. The most famous manifestation of this new consciousness was the Harlem Renaissance of the 1920's. This movement presented the creative art of African-Americans to the world. Black newspapers also flourished and played an important part in mobilizing the black community to demand increased opportunities. Shortly before World War II, the government, recognizing the potential need for a pool of trained aviators for an expanded Army Air Corps, established the Civilian Pilot Training Program (CPTP). The CTPT set up courses of instruction around the country primarily at institutions of higher learning. Demands upon the Roosevelt administration by the black community which had supported it resulted in the program being offered to Black-Americans at black colleges and universities. This program produced a growing number of licensed African-American aviators, a resource which would have been difficult to ignore. Pressure was also applied to the War Department which had long resisted the utilization of black servicemen in aviation. To relieve this pressure, the War Department agreed to establish a squadron of black aviators and training began in July 1941.
4. TUSK_120829_037.JPG: The 99th Fighter Squadron, First Into Battle: The passage of the Selective Training and Service Act outlawed discrimination in the armed forces and required that the services open all military specialties to qualified African-Americans. Military aviation, from which blacks had always been barred, was now an option. As "Separate but Equal" was still the law of the land in 1940, the War Department was compelled to establish separate aviation units for its black personnel. In early 1941, the War Department formed the 99th Pursuit Squadron (later re-designated the 99th Fighter Squadron). The 99th FS would be manned by the aviators and support personnel that were training at the Tuskegee Institute and other training sites around the country. By July 1942, the 99th FS has reached its full strength and was undergoing advanced training. This training would continue for another nine months before the 99th would be the first African-American aviation unit deployed to combat. The delay in deploying the 99th was typical of the sluggish way the War Department moved regarding matters concerning the use of African-American units and personnel. The 99th flew its first combat mission on 6 June 1943, when an element of the squadron participated in bombing Pantalleria, an Axis island stronghold in the Mediterranean Sea. On 2 July, Lt. Charles B. Hall achieved the squadron's first aerial victory when he downed a Focke-Wulf 190 over Sicily. After a rough start, the 99th found its footing and made its presence felt. Over the Anzio beachhead, pilots of the 99th FS would down 17 enemy aircraft, the most of any American fighter squadron involved in the operation. Early in 1944, three African-American fighter squadrons of the 332nd Fighter Group arrived in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations.
5. TUSK_120829_040.JPG: The North African Campaign: The 99th Fighter Squadron arrived in Morocco in April 1943, almost 7 months after "Operation Torch" -- the British-American invasion of North Africa. The campaign was the result of pressure from the Russians to open a second front to divert some Axis combat power from the Russian Theater. In the ensuring months, the Allies were able to encircle the Axis forces in Tunisia and force their surrender. The North African campaign was nearing it's [sic] conclusion, with the Axis ground forces having been defeated and its air forces driven from the African continent. Now the main objective of the Allies was to secure the Mediterranean lines of communication. One of the obstacles standing in the way of Allied control of the Mediterranean sea lanes was the island stronghold of Pantelleria. Located between Tunisia and Sicily, Pantelleria had to be eliminated as an Axis base before the invasions of Sicily and mainland Italy could begin. The 99th FS was assigned to the 33rd Fighter Group of the Twelfth Air Force operating out of Tunisia. Their reception by the 33rd FG commander was not a welcoming one. As part of the 33rd, the 99th would participate in the action against Pantelleria. The bombing of the Pantelleria airfield on 2 June 1943 would be the first combat mission undertaken by the 99th FS. The 99th would also have its first air-to-air engagement over the island on 9 June 1943 when an element made contact with 4 Messerschmitt Bf-109s. Pantellteria was bombed into submission and surrendered to the Allies on 11 June. It was the only instance in World War II in which an enemy had been made to surrender solely by aerial bombardment. [The above statement, of course, totally ignores the atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.]
6. TUSK_120829_043.JPG: The Right Man: It would be difficult to imagine a single individual better suited to meet the challenges of leading the nation's first African-American combat aviators than Benjamin O. Davis, Jr. A 1936 graduate of West Point, Davis seemed to have been uniquely prepared for the role he would play. He was the son of a career army officer and he developed an interest in aviation as a teenager. His father's postings, particularly those in the Jim Crow South, had made him acutely aware of the prevalent racial attitudes. He would be further toughened by his experiences at West Point where he endured the "Silence." The "Silence" was a form of isolation which forbade cadets from having any social interaction other than official business with the "Silenced" cadet. After graduating from West Point, Davis was commissioned as an infantry officer. His requests for an aviation assignment were denied because blacks were not assigned to aviation units. After the War Department yielded to pressure to establish black aviation units, Davis would get his chance. After completing initial flight training as a member of the first class in the Tuskegee Project, Davis became commander of the 99th FS. He commanded the unit from that time through the initial phases of its deployment to the Mediterranean Theater of Operations (MTO), then returned to the United States to assume command of the 332nd Fighter Group (FG) in October 1943. The 332nd FG consisted of three newly trained African-American squadrons (the 100th FS, 301st FS, and the 302nd FS) and joined the 99th FS in the MTO in February 1944. In early 1944, the 99th FS was officially transferred to the 332nd FG -- effectively making Davis the commander of all African-American fighter squadrons in the European Theater of Operations. Under his command, the 99th FS and then the 332nd FG became effective combat units. He clearly imprinted upon the organizations he commanded a sense of discipline and determination to succeed. The 99th FS and the 332nd FG destroyed over 110 enemy aircraft, earned 3 distinguished Unit Citation, 150 Distinguished Flying Crosses and numerous other decorations. Perhaps more importantly, under his leadership the fist units of black aviators in the Armed Forces of the United States would endure the challenges of a military system that treated them as less than equal and would disprove many commonly-held beliefs about the abilities of African-Americans.
7. TUSK_120829_051.JPG: The Campaign Over Sicily: The Allied invasion of Sicily took place during the period 9 July to 17 August 1943. Code named Operation Husky, the campaign's main objective was to clear Sicily and the Mediterranean sea lanes of Axis air and naval forces which would in turn open the way for an invasion of the Italian mainland. The 99th FS participated in this campaign as part of the 33rd FG of the Twelfth Air Force. It would be in the skies over Sicily that the 99th FS would suffer it's [sic] first combat losses and score it's [sic] first aerial victory. On a mission to escort medium bombers attacking the airfield at Castelveltrano on 2 July, elements of the 99th FS were attacked by German fighters. In the opening moments of the engagement, the 99th loss [sic] two aircraft. Shortly afterward, Lt. Charles B. Hall intercepted one of the German fighters preparing to attack the bombers and shot it down, becoming the first African-American in the United States Military to down an enemy aircraft in aerial combat. The 99th FS then moved to Sicily and undertook ground support missions that presented few opportunities for air-to-air engagements. Attacking ground targets in support of ground operations would be the primary mission of the unit for the remainder of 1943. Surviving combat with the Germans may have been a lesser challenge than surviving the efforts of those who wanted to see the unit fail. The commander of the 33rd FG made scathing reports about the capabilities and courage of the 99th FS. Were it not for the intervention of some high-ranking officers, the Tuskegee Experiment would have been declared a failure and the black aviators removed from frontline combat. These damaging reports were eventually discredited when the performance of the 99th FS was compared to the performance of similar squadrons flying the same type of aircraft in the same theater of operations. In September 1943, LTC Davis was recalled to the United States to assume command of the 332nd Fighter Group which was reading for deployment to MTO.
8. TUSK_120829_062.JPG: The Campaign Over Anzio: Probably no other action has come to characterize the Second World War on the Italian mainland more than the battle for Anzio. Anzio was another costly offensive action by Allied forces over difficult terrain against a skilled defender that yielded ground very grudgingly. The action which began on 22 January 1944 was a move by the Allies to land a force by sea on the west coast of the Italian mainland to cut off Axis forces operating further south along the main defensive line. As in the action at Salerno, the Axis (principally German forces) were able to react quickly to the Allied threat and take advantage of an overly cautious Allied commander to contain the Allied beachheads. The battle for Anzio settled into a stalemate which lasted until 23 May at which time the Allied offensive against the Axis main line of defense caused a general retreat toward Rome and allowing a breakout from the beachhead. Many historians believe that the Anzio campaign achieved few if any of its objectives. The one positive thing that may have resulted from the action was that a considerable size Axis force was tied down containing the beachhead. During the Anzio action, the 99FS had completed its move to the Italian mainland. Under this new and enlightened leadership, the 99th FS would clearly demonstrate their proficiency and aggressiveness in aerial combat and begin to quiet its detractors. In action over Anzio on 27 and 28 January 1944, 32 Axis aircrafts [sic] were shot down by Allied fighters, 13 of that number were credited to the pilots of the 99th FS. During this period, the 99th FS downed more enemy aircrafts [sic] than any other Allied fighter squadron participating in the action. For this action, the 99th FS would receive its first Distinguished Unit Citation. In the coming months, the men of the 99th FS participated in the defense of the Anzio beachhead and ground attack missions in support of Allied forces in the MTO. By the time of the breakout from the beachhead, the 99th FS will have added 4 more aerial victories to its tally.
9. TUSK_120829_070.JPG: Enter the 332nd FG: In early February 1944 about the same time that the 99th FS was having its successes over Anzio, LTC Davis led the three squadrons of the 332nd FG into Italy. Upon arrival, the 332nd FG was assigned to the 12th Air Force and settled in at the airfield at Montecorvino. It would not be long before they would be committed to action. On 5 February, the 100th FS flew the Group's first mission. The initiation of the three squadrons into combat operation appeared to have been a relatively gradual one. The initial missions consisted mostly of harbor patrols, convoy protection and some ground attack. The pilots who were anxious to prove themselves in aerial combat against Axis pilots found the work monotonous. These types of missions would characterize the operations of the 332nd FG well into May 1944. During this period there was little contact with Axis fighter aircrafts [sic]. This may have been a good thing as the 332nd FG was initially equipped with an aircraft that would have put them at a distinct disadvantage in an engagement with the most commonly encountered Axis fighters. The first of a series of aircraft with which the 332nd FG would be equipped was the Bell P-39Q. These were not new machines but "war weary" hand-me-downs. A brand new P-38Q was generally considered by most American fighter pilots to be a second rate aircraft. It's [sic] relatively poor performance, particularly at altitudes above 12,000, would have made the P-39 easy prey for most Axis fighters> Many of the P-39's [sic] produced (over 5,500) were shipped to the Soviet Union where the Soviets successfully employed the aircraft in various roles including fighter and ground attack. The Soviet's experience with the type was very different from those of the other Allies. Many Soviet pilots considered the P-39 a very capable aircraft. Over 30 pilots were able to achieve the status of ace while flying the P-39. The First Redtails: The Republic P-47 Thunderbolt was a large, rugged and powerful fighter aircraft that was capable of holding its own against it's [sic] Axis adversaries. The "Jug," as it became affectionately nicknamed, was the most produced U.S. fighter of the Second World War. It was flown by many U.S. Allies and deployed to all theaters. As with many of the aircraft used by the 332nd FG, the initial Thunderbolts received many hand-me-downs. The first P-47's [sic] came from the 324th FG, the "Checkertails." This aircraft replaced the less capable P-39 AiraCorbra that equipped the 100th, 301st, and 302nd Fighter Squadrons. One of the Variants [sic] used by the 332nd FG was the P-47D "Razorback" bare metal or painted OD. The P-47's [sic] were the first 332nd aircraft to bare the distinctive red tails that would become the signature markings of the group. While the P-47 was used by the 332nd FG only a few weeks, the acquisition of the P-47 was significant in that it marked a change in the unit's missions from the more tactical (ground support) to the more strategic (bomber escort).
10. TUSK_120829_087.JPG: Building the Legend: The actions of the 99th FS over the Anzio Beachhead in January 1944 more than proved that the black aviators could be as effective as any other squadron. In this action, the 99th FS destroyed twelve enemy aircraft in two days, more than any Allied squadron engaged in the action. Time Magazine in an article the previous September all but called the "Tuskegee Experiment" a failure. The magazine was now trumpeting their success. Though they would continue to have detractors, they had disproven the main argument of those who would have denied them equal opportunities. They had passed the "Test" and would build a legend. Their new strategic mission made them a part of the Allied effort to destroy the war-making capabilities of Germany. This new mission would have the 332nd FG protecting bombers sent to destroy industrial and transportation sites deep inside of enemy territory. Protecting bombers from the Luftwaffe, the German airforce, was not an easy task. During the course of the war the tenacious air defenses of the Reich had exacted a heavy toll. It was not unusual for the Americans to lose scores of heavy bombers and hundreds of airmen in a single raid. Many German aces or "experten" had perfected head-on attack. Defending the bombers against German fighters would be an almost sacred mission to the Redtails. Understanding the cost of failing in this or any mission cause [sic] the 332nd FG to protect their charges as never before. It was a relatively rare event for the 332nd FG to lose a bomber to enemy aircraft.
11. TUSK_120829_097.JPG: A New Mission: The Summer of 1944 was a time of significant change for the 99th FS and the 332nd FG. In April, the 332nd FG would began [sic] to exchange its well-used P39Q Airacobras for the very capable Republic P-47 Thunderbolts and then only after one month traded up to the legendary North American P-51 Mustangs. In June 1944, the 99th FS would become the fourth squadron of the 332nd FG and would move to it's [sic] permanent base at Ramitelli. Most significantly, the 332nd FG would transfer from the 12th Air Force to the 15th Air Force where the nature of its missions would also change. With the 12th Air Force, the operations of the 332nd FG had been more tactical in nature, providing close air support to ground forces and attacking enemy lines of communications in Italy and Southern France. The mission of the 15th Air Force was more strategic, involving offensive air operations against targets in Germany and occupied Europe including industrial and war-making capabilities. More specifically the new mission would require the pilots of the 332nd FG to escort and protect heavy bombers (the four-engined B-17's [sic] and B-24's [sic]) on long range bombing missions into Germany and occupied Europe. It had been learned on a number of earlier missions in which bombers had been sent unescorted to strike important target [sic] that the losses would be unsustainable. The 14 October 1943 mission of the 8th Air Force to bomb the ball bearing manufacturing plants at Schweinfurt Germany (referred to as "Black Thursday") is probably the most sited example. On this mission, the bombers had to fly a significant part of the route unescorted as no Allied fighter aircraft had sufficient range to escort the bombers all the way to the target and back. They were mauled by the Luftwaffe. Of the 291 bombers dispatched, 77 bombers and 650 aircrew were loss [sic]. Since that time, the Americans had brought the North American P-51 Mustang on line. The high performance P-51 had sufficient range to escort the bombers to almost all targets and back and more than a match for most Axis fighters. The re-equipping of the 332nd FG with the P-47 Thunderbolts and then the P-51 Mustangs, and the transfer to the 15th Air Force marked the beginning of a new mission. On 8 June 1944, the 332nd FG flew its first strategic mission with it's [sic] pilots flying P-47D's [sic] escorted [sic] B-17's [sic] from the 5th Bomb Wing to attack Pola, Italy.
12. TUSK_120829_121.JPG: The Able Adversary: The principle adversary of the 99th FS and the 332nd FG was the Luftwaffe, the German Air Force. At the start of World War Two, Germany fielded one of the most advanced and powerful air forces in the world. In the years before World War Two, Germany actively developed its air arm insecret [sic] as they were prohibited from engaging in military aviation by the Treaty of Versailles which ended the First World War. When the Nazis came to power this development accelerated. Under the leadership of Hermann Goring, the Luftwaffe was officially established in 1935 and development began in ernest [sic]. The newly formed Luftwaffe gained some combat experience in 1936 when the Nazis sent elements (known as the Condor Legion) to support the Nationalist Air Force in the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). The Luftwaffe was well prepared for war. In the early stages of World War Two, German forces using a tactic call [sic] Blitzkreig were successful in driving opposing armies from the Western part of the European continent. The Luftwaffe was an important component of this success, clearing the skies of enemy aircraft and providing close air support to a highly mobile ground force. The German aircraft industry provided a constant stream of very capable aircrafts [sic]. Some of these aircraft were groundbreaking machines such as the Messerschmitt Me 163 Komet a rocket-powered fighter and the Messerschmitt Me 262 the first operational jet fighter. However, protracted campaigns, fighting on multiple fronts, the strategic bombing of Germany and the combined strength of Allied airpower continuously eroded the strength of the Luftwaffe. By June 1944, control of the skies over Europe had clearly passed to the Allies. This almost constant aerial combat and the lack of a rotation system naturally resulted in the loss of many German pilots that were difficult to replace. However, it also resulted in some Luftwaffe pilots becoming incredibly experienced. It was not usual for these very experienced aces or "experten" as the Germans referred to them to have over 100 aerial victories. Erich Hartmann, the highest scoring fighter pilot in history downed 352 aircraft.
13. TUSK_120829_130.JPG: Defending the Reich: From June 1944, the air war over Germany had grown increasingly desperate for the Luftwaffe. As Allied forces on both the Eastern and Western fronts moved ever closer to the borders of Germany, the distances that had provided some protection to the cities and war industries diminished and disappeared. As Allied airpower grew, the power of the German Air Force was steadily drained away as it tried to defend the homeland against American fighters and fighter-bombers with long range capabilities roamed the skies over Germany, attacking targets of opportunity relentlessly -- particularly airfields and transportation systems. To make matters worse, the Luftwaffe had to deal with critical fuel shortages which curtailed operations, particularly the training of replacement pilots. Despite this, the German Air Force continued to fight, employing new weapons and tactics to slow the advance of the Allied Air Forces. The formation of special units units new tactics was not uncommon. The Wilde Sau ("Wild Pig") units were formed to combat night bombing. The Sonderkommando Elbe ("Special Unit Elbe"), a unit formed to use ramming as a tactic, is one of the more radical examples. Even under these conditions, the German aircraft industry continued to produce new and innovative machines. In the latter half of 1944, the Germans began to deploy their jets and rocket-powered aircraft. However, this was a case of "too little, too late." These new aircraft could not be produced in the quantity necessary to address the Allied advantage. By the end of 1944, the winner of the war in Europe had been determined and none of the "wonder" weapons could change that fact.
14. TUSK_120829_148.JPG: The War At Home: As the war overseas raged, another older struggle continued in America: The struggle against prejudice and racism. This struggle took on new meaning as African-Americans were being called on once again to fight and die for a democracy in which they were not afforded the rights of full citizenship. As with all of America's wars, Blacks were ready to serve. The reasons many African-Americans rushed to serve must have been varied and complex. Many thought that serving was an obligation while others saw serving as a way to demostrate [sic] their worthiness as citizens. A letter from reader James E. Thompson, who expressed the frustration of many Black Americans about race relations, sparked The Pittsburgh Courier, a leading black newspaper, to start the "Double V Campaign," which called for victory over facism [sic] abroad and victory over racism at home. The Double V Campaign's mobilization of the black community was a precursor of things to come. The necessities of war production meant increased opportunities for women and minorities as they found jobs in war plants. Many blacks moved to urban centers outside of the American South to take advantage of these increased opportunities. This was not always welcomed by the majority population. During the war, several race riots occurred in Detroit, Los Angeles, Chicago and Harlem. Military service offered no refuge from segregation and discrimination. Black servicemen and women, particularly those serving in the South, suffered the same indignities. Of the Black American aviators to serve during WWII, approximately one half served overseas.
15. TUSK_120829_153.JPG: The Freeman Field Mutiny: The Summer of 1944 was marked by race riots that took place around the United States. This included Detroit, Michigan which was located near Selfridge Field where the 477th BG trained. In May 1944, the 477th BG was suddenly moved from Selfridge Field in Michigan to Godman Field near Fort Knox in Kentucky. Many believed that the War Department moved the unit south to minimize the influence of a black population demanding better treatment. The morale of the 477th BG had already suffered from the segregationist policies of its white commander, COL. Robert R. Selway, Jr. who with the support of his commander Major General Frank O'Driscoll Hunter enforced a system of strict social segregation. This was done despite Army regulations which forbade such practices. The morale of the unit suffered another blow as Godman Field was totally inadequate to support the type of training required to prepare the unit for combat. To facilitate training of the 477th BG the decision was made to move to Freeman Field near Seymour, Indiana. The 477th BG began the relocation to Freeman Field on 1 March 1945. When it became apparent to the black officers of the 477th BG that the commander, Col. Selway, intended to continue his practice of social segregation by establishing separate officer clubs for black and white officers, the black officers decided to take action. On 5 and 6 April 1945, a small group of black officers entered the club designated for exclusive use by white officers. This action resulted in 61 black officers being placed under arrest and restricted to quarters. Charges were dropped for all but three officers including 1LT Roger C Terry who was accused of shoving the Officer of the Day (OOTD). Shortly afterwards a revised base regulation was issued regarding general use of the officers clubs, which all black officers were ordered to read and sign. 101 officers refused to sign the document. As a result they were placed under arrest. Under pressure from various organizations and the United States Congress, the War Department dropped charges against these 101 officers on 23 April. However they did receive letters of reprimand from Major General Hunter. The three officers accused to showing the Office Of the Day were tried in a military court. Two were acquitted but 1LT Terry was found guilty of jostling the Officer of the Day and dishonorably discharged. In 1995, all of the black officers were vindicated when the Air Force began to remove the letters of reprimand from the files of the 101 officers involved in the protest. Roger C Terry received a full pardon and restoration of rank.
16. TUSK_120829_162.JPG: The War Record: The war record of the 332nd Fighter Group is probably one of the most-examined records of the war. This can be attributed to the growing fascination with this incredible story. As with most stories that come out of war, the facts, opinions, rumors and legends will often intertwine. Even in recent times, in our recent wars, the media, in their zeal to lift us with a great story, have not gotten it absolutely right. In recent years, a number of individuals and agencies have made serious efforts to discern what is fact. The often quoted statement that the 332nd FG never lost a bomber it escorted has been the focus of much attention. While a number of researchers have found official documents that cast doubt upon the statement, it is very important to note that they also established the fact that it was very rare for a bomber escorted by the 332nd FG to be lost to enemy fighters.
17. TUSK_120829_169.JPG: The War Ends: In April 1945, the war in Europe was nearing its end. Activity by the Luftwaffe had waned significantly. Even so, in these last days the 332nd FG engaged the enemy. On 26 April, while escorting a photo reconnaissance mission to Linz and Prague, elements of the 100th FD and 301st FS encountered 5 Messerschmitt Bf 109s. In the ensuing combat, 4 of the enemy aircraft were destroyed with no losses to the 332nd. These four aerial victories would be the last of the war for the 332nd and the 15th Air Force. Four days later, P-51s from the 332nd escourted [sic] a single aircraft on an uneventful photo reconnaissance mission to Bolzano, Italy. This was the 332nd Fighter Group's last mission of the war. About a week later, on 8 May 1945, the Second World War ended in Europe. The experiment that began over four years before to determine if African-Americans could be effective combat aviators also ended, and the result of the experiment is the proud legacy of the 332nd FG. They had passed the test. They fought in one of the most demanding arenas of warfare. They had flow the most advanced aircraft that their nation could produce, miles above the earth, against very capable adversaries -- and prevailed. By the end of the war in Europe, the 332nd FG had silenced many doubters but many still remained and they would resist the change that was coming. At the end of the war, the United States Military was still segregated, and would remain so for another four years until President Truman signed Executive Order 9981, ending segregation in the armed forces. Black servicemen and women returned to a country divided by race, but a major battle in the war for equality had been won. Prevailing views about the capabilities of African-Americans had to be reconsidered. A major pillar supporting the argument for denying opportunities to a people based solely upon their race was pulled down. "Separate but Equal," which had been the law of the land, would be struck down. A nation started to change.
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2012 photos: Equipment this year: My mainstays were the Fuji S100fs, Nikon D7000, and the new Fuji X-S1. I also used an underwater Fuji XP50 and a Nikon D600. The first three cameras all broke this year and had to be repaired. Trips this year: three Civil War Trust conferences (Shepherdstown, WV, Richmond, VA, and Williamsburg, VA), a week-long family reunion cruise of the Caribbean, another week-long family reunion in the Wisconsin Dells (with lots of in-transit time in Ohio and Indiana), and my 7th consecutive San Diego Comic-Con trip (including side trips to Zion, Bryce, the Grand Canyon, etc). Ego strokes: I had a picture of Miss DC, Ashley Boalch, published in the Washington Post. I had a photograph of the George Segal San Francisco Holocaust memorial used as the cover of Quebec Francais (issue 165). Not being able to read French, I'm not entirely sure what the article is about but, hey! And I guess what could be considered to be a positive thing, my site is now established enough that spammers have noticed it and I had to block 17,000 file description postings for Viagra and whatever else.. Number of photos taken this year: just below 410,000.
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