BGuthrie Photos: MD -- Annapolis -- US Naval Academy -- Museum -- History: 1866-1939

MD -- Annapolis -- US Naval Academy -- Museum -- History: 1866-1939:

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Specific picture descriptions: Photos above with "i" icons next to the bracketed sequence numbers (e.g. "[1] ") are described as follows:
1. NAMUP2_110130_001.JPG: Alfred T. Mahan 1840-1914 Born at West Point, New York, the son of a well-known professor at the Military Academy, Mahan entered the Naval Academy with the Class of 1859. He served in several ships during the Civil War and after a routine career was promoted to captain in 1885. He was not noted for his skills as a seaman, but his writings on the Civil War operations of the navy claimed the attention of Stephen B. Luce who selected Mahan as a lecturer at the new Naval War College. It was there that he organized, and published, his lecturers as "The Influence of Sea-Power Upon History, 1660-1783." His work, received with great acclaim, especially in Britain, Germany , and Japan, outlined a processed that could lead to national preeminence through naval power.
2. NAMUP2_110130_007.JPG: The New Navy: The Navy in Transition: Following four years of Civil War, the Navy returned to its pre-war missions, cruising familiar station in familiar ships. The peacetime Navy stagnated, promotions slowed, and advances in technology ignored. Naval officers pursued other distinctions: founding the Naval Institute, creating the Naval War College, challenging the Arctic, and promoting a modern navy. Then, almost over night, the Navy adopted modern technologies, abandoning its wooden sailing fleet and taking a lead in building modern steel warships. 1865-1895 A New Navy: Potential war with Spain in 1873 brought a painful truth to light: the US naval fleet was inadequate, consisting of resurrected monitors and slow-moving wooden sailing ships. In 1881, a board of naval officers recommended 68 new vessels. Congress could not accept the cost of so many ships, but two years later approved the construction of four new steel ships. These first ships of the New Navy had double hulls, watertight compartmentation, electricity, breech-loading guns -- and sails. Combating Nature: In 1870, the USS Saginaw arrived in Kure Atoll to check for castaways. Instead, she ran aground. The ship was a total loss, but the 93-man crew made it to one of the larger of the atoll's islands. After almost three weeks, Lt. John G. Talbot and four enlisted men volunteered to seek help by sailing the ship's gig 1,500 to Hawaii. After 31 days, the exhausted men closed in on their destination, but the boat overturned in the rough surf. William Halford, the gig's lone survivor, managed to reach shore. A rescue party saved the 88 sailors stranded on Kure Atoll. George W. DeLong (1844-1881): DeLong served in USS Juniata during her 1873 voyage to Greenland in search of the missing exploration ship Polaris. His experiences on the Juniata convinced him of the value of Arctic exploration. He joined with publisher James Gordon Bennett who purchased the Jeannette and turned her over to the US Navy. In July 1879, Jeannette sailed for the Bering Strait, entering the ice in early September and remained in its grip until June 1881, when she was broken open by its force and sank. DeLong then led his men on a heroic journey of nearly three months duration across the rugged ice to open water north of Siberia. DeLong and many of his crew died in the effort. Call of the Arctic: Seeking honor and glory during the time of professional stagnation that followed the Civil War, a few officers ventured into the frozen wilderness of the Arctic despite little naval support for exploration. Robert E. Peary saw his chance to fame in being the first person to reach the North Pole. As opposed to previous explorers, Peary and Matthew Henson achieved this through working with local Inuits, building igloos and traveling on land by dog sled. Over the course of numerous separate expeditions, starting in 1889, he and companion Henson advanced further and further north. Finally, in April 1906, Peary, Henson, and four Inuits, achieved the ultimate goal: to stand atop the world. Matthew A. Henson (1866-1955): Orphaned at the age of eleven, Henson began his working life two years later as a cabin in a ship out of Baltimore. The ship's captain taught Henson to read and write. He eventually left the sea and began working as a store clerk in Washington, where he met Peary. Henson and Peary teamed up for all of the Arctic explorations. Henson learned to handle sled dogs and to speak Inuit. It's possible that Henson reached the pole before Peary, but given the racial attitudes of the day, was not credited with the discovery. Robert E. Peary (1856-1920) Robert E. Peary joined the Navy as a civil engineer in 1881. He spent several years surveying a route for a canal across Nicaragua. A[n] 1886 exploration to Greenland sparked his interest in reaching the North Pole. He obtained a leave of absence from the Navy to make six subsequent expeditions. In 1902, he reached a latitude of 84 degrees, 17'N; four years later, he achieved 87 degrees, 6'N. Finally, on April 6, 1909, Peary made it to the North Pole. The "Weekend" War: The Navy returned to pre-Civil War patrols of distance stations to protect American interests with only occasional breaks in the routine. In 1866, the American steamer General Sherman ran aground near Inchon, Korea. Thinking it was a pirate ship, local villargers burned it and killed its crew. Making matters worse, Korean officials barred the Navy's subsequent investigation. Angered by the stalemate and determined to open relations with the isolationist country, the Navy sent the Asiatic Squadron to Inchon in 1871. When the Koreans fired on an American ship and then refused to apologize, squadron commander John Rodgers ordered an all-out attack. He sent 650 men ashore to destroy forts along the Salee River. In two days, the forts were demolished and 243 Koreans killed. The Americans suffered three men killed, seven wounded.
3. NAMUP2_110130_015.JPG: Model of Steam Sloop Enterprise: The steam sloop of war Enterprise was launched in 1874. Despite the technological advancements of the Civil War and modern ship building in Europe, the ship was little different from those commissioned before the war: wood hull, smooth-bore Dahlgren guns, and a full sail rig.
4. NAMUP2_110130_027.JPG: The Squadron of Evolution: The Squadron of Evolution, commanded by Rear Adm John G. Walker, at anchor in an East Coast port, 1889. The Squadron flagship, Chicago, is in the left foreground. Astern of her are (from left to right): gunboat Yorktown, cruiser Boston and cruiser Atlanta.
5. NAMUP2_110130_037.JPG: Hugh Purvis Medal of Honor and Plaque: Marine private Hugh Purvis participated in the attack on the Han River forts. During the assault on the largest of the forts, Purvis rushed to the flag pole and lowered the Korean flag. For his inspiring act, Purvis was awarded the Medal of Honor. Purvis would leave the Marine Corps a few years later and then spend 35 years at the Naval Academy as an armorer.
6. NAMUP2_110130_045.JPG: Korean Fan: This fan was taken from a house near the site of the battle in June 1871. The names of the officers who participated in the attack are written on it.
7. NAMUP2_110130_051.JPG: Model of Saginaw Gig: The Saginaw was the first Navy ship built on the West Coast. Its gig, or captain's boat, was decked over to make it as sea-worthy as possible.
8. NAMUP2_110130_059.JPG: Sextant: Much of the ship's equipment was lost in the wreck, but a sextant was needed to help navigate from Green Island to Hawaii, some 1,500 miles away. This sextant was made from some materials salvaged from the wreck, including a gauge from the engine room.
9. NAMUP2_110130_065.JPG: Boat Hook: The working end of the boat hook used by the Saginaw's gig
10. NAMUP2_110130_071.JPG: Ship's Log: The log book of the Saginaw records the daily events leading up to the wreck on Kure Atoll.
11. NAMUP2_110130_077.JPG: Boat Flag: Boat flag carried by Saginaw's gig
12. NAMUP2_110130_081.JPG: "134th day. A hard night." -- DeLong's journal after the loss of the Jeanette Jeannette Expedition: In 1879, the steamer Jeannette [spelled multiple ways in the same sign] sailed from San Francisco on a mission to seek the North Pole. The expedition's commander, George Washington DeLong, was a naval officer. Two months later, Jeannette became icebound in the northern Bering Sea. The crew spent the next 19 months conducting scientific exploration. Then, in 1881, Jeanette succumbed to the ice. The crew boarded lifeboats and set off for Siberia, 500 miles away. Twenty-two of the 34 men -- including Commander DeLong -- perished. Jeannette was locked in Arctic ice for more than a year and a half. The crew continued their scientific endeavors and supplemented food stores by hunting. On June 12, 1881, ice overwhelmed Jeannette, crushing the ship's hull. The crew was forced to abandon the ship and take to lifeboats early on the morning of June 13. For more than 140 days, the expedition struggled to reach Siberia. One boat was lost with all hands in a gale; the other two boats became widely separated. DeLong and his boat's crew died of starvation and exposure. Chief Engineer Charles Melville and his crew were rescued. Melville returned to Siberia in 1882 to search for DeLong and other crewmembers. He found the bodies on the Lena River Delta of Siberia. The location was marked with a rock cairn and cross. The Russian government returned the bodies to the United States for burial.
13. NAMUP2_110130_099.JPG: Small Silk Banner and Photo: DeLong's daughter Sylvia was remembered with a small silk banner with her nickname appliqued to it.
14. NAMUP2_110130_123.JPG: Photo of Lt DeLong with Note to Wife: Lieutenant DeLong and his wife Emma had been married only a few years at the time of the expedition. He gave her this small, inscribed photograph upon his departure. She would never see him again.
15. NAMUP2_110130_130.JPG: Ship's Journal and Ice Journal: If at all possible, the ship's journal, an official record of daily events, will be saved if the ship has to be abandoned. The large volume is Jeannette's journal. The smaller notebook, known as the "ice journal," was DeLong's record of the 140 days of the 500 mile trek. On October 24, 1881, DeLong noted "134th day. A hard night." He would succumb to hunger and cold about a week later.
16. NAMUP2_110130_138.JPG: Small Silk US Flag: Mrs Emma DeLong, the lieutenant's wife, made this small silk flag for Jeannette. It was raised over new islands discovered during the expedition and was among Lieutenant DeLong's possessions when his body was recovered.
17. NAMUP2_110130_142.JPG: Silk Ribbon and Metal Wreath: The Russian government sent a railway car to Siberia to recover the remains of expedition members who died in the Lena River Delta, Siberia. Commission Pennant: Commission Pennant from steamer Jeannette. Note the commission pennant flying from the ship's main mast in the illustration. Although this was a private vessel, the crew was made up of US Navy sailors and was subject to naval discipline.
18. NAMUP2_110130_149.JPG: Winchester Rifle: The men went armed, in the hopes of finding food. DeLong carried this Winchester rifle throughout the 500-mile trek.
19. NAMUP2_110130_158.JPG: Containers and Peary Note: During the 1906 expedition, Peary built a stone cairn on the northern coast Ellesmere Island, in the extreme northeast of Canada and separated by a narrow strait from Greenland. In the cairn were left several metal containers and a note, dated July 28, 1906, that identified the members of the expedition.
20. NAMUP2_110130_176.JPG: Spanish-American War: "A splendid little war." -- Secretary of State John Hay to Pres. Theodore Roosevelt For nearly two decades after the Civil War, the Navy looked as it did before the war. But, in a few short years, the United States Navy rapidly modernized. Out of the doldrums, the Navy of 1896 consisted of modern ships armed with modern guns. The Navy would dominate the Spanish in two separate battles, win a world-spanning empire of the United States, and the support of the public and the government. 1898 Remember the Maine: In the late 1800s, Cuban rebels, following the example of American revolutionaries a hundred years earlier, sought their independence from Spain. American sympathies with the rebels created conflict between the Spanish and American governments, tensions only heightened by sensationalist journalism. A more moderate Spanish government seemed to ease the tensions. But, in February 1898, the USS Maine exploded in Havana Harbor, killing 253 men. Although the Spanish government tried to appease America, Congress declared in April that a state of war existed. Maine was refloated in Havana Harbor in February 1912. After investigations were conducted trying to determine the cause of her destruction, the ship was towed to sea and sunk with military honors. Among the lost in the explosion of the Maine were two Naval Academy graduates, Darwin R. Merritt, USNA, 1895 and Friend W. Jenkins, USNA 1886. Merritt's Naval Academy ring was recovered from the wreck and is displayed in the ring collection here in the Museum. Charles D. Sigsbee (1845-1923): A veteran of the Civil War, Captain Sigsbee received command of Maine in 1897. He was at his desk writing a letter to his wife when the explosion occurred. He rushed on deck and helped organize damage-control efforts. After being cleared by a court of inquiry, Sigsbee was given command of the auxiliary cruiser St. Paul, and took part in the Battle of Santiago. Following the war, Sigsbee commanded the squadron that returned the remains of John Paul Jones from France to the Naval Academy. Two Battles, Two Victories: The explosion on board the USS Maine initiated a war with Spain, highlighted by two naval battles a half-world apart. In both battles, vastly superior United States Navy squadrons destroyed outmatched opponents who nevertheless fought with bravery and determination. In Manila Bay, Philippine Islands, and off Santiago de Cuba the Spanish navy fought to retain the remnants of the [country's] once-great empire. With the end of the war, the United States joined the ranks of the world's powers, and faced the responsibilities of governing far-off territories. Battle of Manilla Bay -- May 1, 1898: The first major event of the war took place in the Pacific archipelago of the Philippines. Although half a world away from Cuba, Filipinos were also fighting for independence from their Spanish colonizers. It was still dark with Commo George Dewey entered Manila Bay with a fleet of modern warships. The bay was considered impregnable, guarded by gun batteries and mines. However, the Spanish ships, anchored in a line, only comprised one new and one obsolete cruiser and five gunboats -- an outmatched force to defend a crumbling empire. At 5:41am, Dewey issued his famous order to Charles Gridley, Olympia's commanding officer. The flagship opened fire, quickly followed by the remainder of the ships. For nearly two hours, the American ships poured a devastating barrage on the Spaniards. By noon, the battle was over -- the Spanish ships lay burned, sunk, or abandoned. Battle of Santiago -- July 1898: While Dewey fought a Spanish fleet in the Pacific, Spain's Atlantic fleet, commanded by Vice Adm Pascual Cervera y Topete, managed to evade two American naval squadrons and tool shelter in the harbor of Santiago de Cuba. The guns of the harbor protected the anchored Spanish ships. Cervera was forced to venture out of the harbor when US Army and Cuban troops threatened the town of Santiago. They encountered a vastly superior navy, making Spanish defeat almost inevitable. Charles V. Gridley (1844-1898): During the Civil War, Gridley fought with distinction at the Battle of Mobile Bay. Promoted to lieutenant in 1867 and then commander in 1882, Gridley served on various stations and taught at the Naval Academy before the Spanish-American War. Named commander of Dewey's flagship Olympia, he reported on board only days before the Battle of Manila. Although in poor health, he insisted on remaining at his job until after the battle. A few days later, he was relieved to return home. He never made it: Captain Gridley died in Kobe, Japan on May 24, 1898. Winfield S. Schley (1839-1911): Prior to the Spanish-American War, Schley distinguished himself at the Battle of Mobile Bay and on the Mississippi River during the Civil War. He also led an expedition to rescue the survivors of Adolphus Greely's 1884 expedition to the Arctic. He was promoted to commodore in February 1898, and placed in command of the Flying Squadron upon the outbreak of war with Spain. Having reached the rank of rear admiral, Schley retired from the Navy in 1901. USS Oregon (BB-3): The battleship Oregon was completing a fitting out in Puget Sound Navy Yard when the Maine exploded. Oregon immediately sailed for San Francisco to load ammunition and then headed for Cuba on March 19, 1898. Sixty-six days and 15,000 miles later, she reported ready for duty in time to take part in the Battle of Santiago. The long cruise demonstrated the need for an isthmian canal between North and South America. Commissioned in 1896, she served actively until 1924. Except for service in the Caribbean during the Spanish-American War, Oregon spent her entire life in the Pacific. William T. Sampson (1840-1902): Three years after graduating first in his class at the Academy, Sampson became executive officers in the monitor Patapsco. He was one of the few survivors when the monitor struck a mine. He went onto serve many important positions within the Navy and at the Naval Academy, including Superintendent. On March 26, 1898, Sampson assumed command of the North Atlantic Squadron, making him in charge of the United States Naval forces blockading Cervera in Santiago. His approach to the blockade was efficient and effective, driving out Cervera and then swiftly defeating the Spanish forces. Pascual Cervera y Topete (1839-1909): Educated at the Spanish naval academy at San Fernando, Cervera had a long and distinguished career. He championed improvements in the Spanish navy, resigning in anger when politicians overturned some of his reforms. It took the intervention of Queen Regent herself to convince Cervera to rejoin after war with the United States loomed. After Santiago, Cervera was held as a prisoner-of-war at the Naval Academy. After the war, he returned home. The Spanish people viewed Cervara's loss at Santiago as a result of political mismanagement and considered the naval veteran a war hero. He went on to become a senator. A Popular Navy: The decisive American naval victories of the Spanish-American War propelled the United States Navy into new popularity at home. George Dewey was the focus of popular attention, but all of the participants in the naval battles shared in the adulation. Songs were written, commemorative coins and spoons proliferated, and a number of officers received the thanks of their hometowns. The Navy was the darling of the Nation. Since all of the war's leaders were Naval Academy graduates, the Academy would also benefit. Congress gave more support to the Navy and to the institution that trained its officers. America's New Empire: The war with Spain made the United States an imperial power with territorial holdings. Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam were acquired as a result of the conflict, and Hawaii was occupied. As the United States was settling into its new role, there were ominous signs on the horizons, east and west. England and Germany initiated a competition to see which could build the biggest navies. And Japan, newly emergent after centuries of isolation, succumbed to its own desire for territorial acquisition.
21. NAMUP2_110130_184.JPG: USS Maine 2nd Class Battleship (1895) The Maine had an uneventful career prior to her destruction by explosion in Havana Harbor on 15 February 1898, an event that triggered the Spanish-American War.
22. NAMUP2_110130_191.JPG: Maine in Havana Harbor, CT [??? Cuba ???] On January 25, 1898, the second class battleship Maine entered Havana Harbor. Three weeks later, on February 15, an explosion wrecked the ship, killing 253 men.
23. NAMUP2_110130_199.JPG: Ink Well: This ornate inkwell was recovered from Captain Sigsbee's cabin on board Maine during salvage operations between 1910 and 1912.
24. NAMUP2_110130_208.JPG: Lamp Globe from Maine: This lamp was recovered from the wreck of the Maine. ...
25. NAMUP2_110130_216.JPG: Bugle: The force of the explosion is evident in a mangled bugle recovered from the wreck.
26. NAMUP2_110130_225.JPG: Magazine Keys: Keys to the magazines of the battleship Maine. It is now believed that gunpowder in one of the magazines was responsible for the destruction of the ship. [Personal Note: It's interesting how this little piece of trivia -- that Spain was blameless for the explosion -- is hidden in one of these item notes.] Cap Ribbon: This cap ribbon identified the wearer as belonging to Maine.
27. NAMUP2_110130_235.JPG: Sigsbee's Binoculars: The binoculars used by Captain Sigsbee while on board Maine.
28. NAMUP2_110130_246.JPG: Olympia: This model of the cruiser Olympia shows her as she appeared on the eve [of] war. Upon notification that war had been declared, Commodore Dewey had the ships of the American squadron repainted gray to make them harder to see. USS Olympia (C-6): Soon after her 1895 commissioning, the cruiser Olympia joined the Asiatic Fleet. George Dewey broke his flag as commodore of the fleet on January 3, 1898. After the Battle of Manilla Bay, Olympia remained in Philippine waters for a year before returning to the United States by way of the Suez Canal. She served as a midshipman training ship before becoming the flagship of the Atlantic Fleet Patrol Force during World War I. Olympia was decommissioned in 1922. As the Navy's oldest steel ship afloat, she is preserved in Philadelphia as a museum.
29. NAMUP2_110130_255.JPG: Hull Plating: During the Battle of Manilla Bay, Baltimore was struck by a 4.7-inch shell from a Spanish gun. A section of the cruiser's plating struck by the shell was kept as a souvenir.
30. NAMUP2_110130_265.JPG: Shell: It is impossible to tell which of the American ships fired this 6" projectile, found after the battle.
31. NAMUP2_110130_268.JPG: Shell Casing and Painting: Upon commissioning in 1894, Raleigh spent three years operating in the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. Having joined Dewey's squadron in 1897, the ship participated in the Battle of Manila Bay. While passing the batteries guarding the entrance to the bay, Raleigh returned fire on the island of El Fraile, thus claiming to have fired the first shot in the battle. This powder casing is from the first round fired by the American cruiser. Raleigh was decommissioned in April 1919 and sold for scrapping on August 5, 1921.
32. NAMUP2_110130_278.JPG: Clock: This clock was mounted in the junior officers' mess room on board Olympia. No doubt, the officers frequently checked the time while they awaited the beginning of the battle.
33. NAMUP2_110130_295.JPG: Link of Anchor Chain: A Spanish projectile fired during the Battle of Santiago struck and cut this link of anchor chain from the USS Iowa.
34. NAMUP2_110130_303.JPG: Brooklyn: Donor William Emerson used wood matchsticks to construct this 1/8" scale model of USS Brooklyn.
35. NAMUP2_110130_310.JPG: Letter and Diagram: Ulysses S. Macy described the Battle of Santiago to his parents in a ten-page letter and accompanying diagram. Because of the heightened tensions between the United States and Spain, Naval Cadet Macy's class graduated early from the Academy. He received orders to the USS Brooklyn and was on board in time to participate in the Battle of Santiago.
36. NAMUP2_110130_325.JPG: Binoculars: Sampson used these binoculars throughout the Spanish-American War.
37. NAMUP2_110130_337.JPG: Binoculars: Binoculars used by Admiral Cervera during the Battle of Santiago de Cuba.
38. NAMUP2_110130_345.JPG: Silver Bowl: Silver bowl from the officers' wardroom of the Spanish cruiser Cristobal Colon. Fastest of the Spanish ships, Cristobal Colon led the Americans on a 55-mile chase before being overtaken by Brooklyn and Oregon.
39. NAMUP2_110130_357.JPG: Flag: The Spanish ensign from Cervera's flagship Infanta Maria Teresa
40. NAMUP2_110130_368.JPG: Presentation, Sword and Scabbard: The citizens of New York presented an ornate sword and scabbard to native son John W. Philip for his service as commander of the battleship Texas during the Battle of Santiago. The gold pommel of the sword is inset with large sardonyx, Philip's birthstone.
41. NAMUP2_110130_386.JPG: Medal: The West Indies Campaign Medal was authorized in 1908 for all officers and men of the Navy and Marine Corps who served afloat in the theater of operations or ashore in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Philippines, or on Guam between May and August 16, 1898. The medal features views of Cuba's Morro Castle. Originally the ribbon was red and gold, the colors of Spain's flag. This proved controversial and the ribbon was changed to blue and gold.
42. NAMUP2_110130_415.JPG: Uniform and Hat: On March 24, 1903, George Dewey was commissioned Admiral of the Navy, a rank created especially for him in recognition of his services at Manila Bay, and which no other person has held.
43. NAMUP2_110130_417.JPG: George Dewey (1837-1917):: Dewey was born on December 26, 1837, in Montpelier, Vermont, and graduated from the Naval Academy in 1857. Commissioned lieutenant in 1861, he served with Admiral Farragut on the Mississippi River. For thirty years, led a routine career, undistinguished by significant or modern commands. In 1897, however, he was named commander of the Asiatic Squadron, in large part due to the influence of Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt. Informed of the declaration of war, Dewey prepared for battle. On May 1, 1898, Dewey found and destroyed the Spanish squadron in Manila Bay. News of the victory made Dewey a national hero.
44. NAMUP2_110130_426.JPG: Tobacco Humidor: Very few individuals have had as many souvenirs created in their honor as George Dewey. Spoons, cups, medals, plates, scarves, and even tobacco humidors, such as this one shaped like a ship's capstan, were emblazoned with the commodore's image.
45. NAMUP2_110130_434.JPG: Plate: On February 8, 1900, the Union League of Brooklyn, New York, hosted a dinner for the naval victories of the battles of the Spanish-American War. Plates like this were designed for, and used at, the dinner.
46. NAMUP2_110130_438.JPG: Medal: Authorized on June 3, 1898, for the officers and men of the Navy and Marine Corps who participated n the Battle of Manila Bay, the Dewey Medal is considered to be the first campaign medal issued. It was designed by Daniel Chester French and struck by Tiffany and Company. The relief on the reverse depicts an American sailor. His left foot rests on a panel in which the name of his ship is inscribed. Admiral Dewey always wore his medal so that the reverse side showed. Pocket Watch: The popular acclaim bestowed on the Navy, especially the men and ships in the Battle of Manila Bay, found expression in many forms. This pocket watch, with the faces of the ship's commanding officers on its face, is one example.
47. NAMUP2_110130_447.JPG: It took me a couple of looks before I realized the freight elevator was behind this large display.
48. NAMUP2_110130_454.JPG: World War I: A Battleship Navy: For almost a half century, the United States emphasized battleships, the largest and most powerful ships in the fleets of the day. Majestic and imposing, they were symbols of national pride and power. Although American battleships found little use in World War I, they remained the backbone of the fleet until the attack on Pearl Harbor. 1914-1918 The Great White Fleet: Japanese victory in a 1905 conflict with Russia provided President Theodore Roosevelt with opportunity to demonstrate the might of the US battle fleet. He authorized a worldwide tour of sixteen ships, known as the Great White Fleet. He hoped the voyage would show that the Navy could operate effectively at long ranges and impress both American people and Japan, now seen as a potential rival. The Cruise of the Great White Fleet -- December 1906 - February 1909: On December 16, 1907, sixteen battleships of the United States Atlantic Fleet sortied from Hampton Roads, Virginia, on a fourteen month, 43,000 miles [sic] voyage around the world. At each stop along the way, including Japan which was not on the original itinerary, the ships and sailors received enthusiastic welcomes. The fleet arrived back at the United States in February 1909 without major problems. Roosevelt's expectations were met. "... ready at the drop of a hat for a feast, a frolic, or a fight." -- Rear Adm Robley Evans Rise of a New Naval Power: Disagreement between Russia and Japan over control of the Asian territory known as Manchuria led to war in 1904. The last battle of this conflict took place on May 1905, when the two navies met in the Tsushima straits between Korea and Japan. The Russian fleet was soundly defeated, ushering in a new era of Japanese dominance in the Pacific. It took Russia's Baltic Squadron seven and a half months to reach Tsushima where, exhausted and in disrepair, it met disaster. Eight of the 12 armored ships were sunk, and only three of the 53 ships that set out from the Baltic arrived at a Russian port. Hugh Rodman (1859-1940): Rodman graduated from the Naval Academy in 1880. Shipboard duty and tours at the Hydrographic Office and the Naval Observatory preceded four years surveying the coasts of Alaska and British Columbia. During the Spanish-American War, he served in Raleigh in the Battle of Manila Bay. From 1907 to 1909, he attended the Naval War College. In 1917, Admiral Rodman served as Commander, Battleship Division 9, Atlantic Fleet, in his flagship, New York. Ordered to European waters late in the year, his division joined the British Grand Fleet at Scapa Flow. After World War I, he was appointed minister to Peru. World War I: A rationale for building battleships was anticipation of a naval war with Great Britain or Germany. When war came, the United States found itself allied with England, but the expensive battleships found little use. By early 1917, three years into the war, the British, desperate for supplies, needed American naval forces to keep shipping lines open; a job for destroyers. Small and agile destroyers, equipped with weapons and sensors specifically intended for their mission, were [the] most efficient ships to combat the lethal German U-boats. Convoys for the Allies - May 1917: As soon as it officially declared war on Germany in April 1917, the United States dispatched every destroyer it could spare to European waters. The first six arrived in 1917. Within three months, 31 additional destroyers and two tenders arrived to lend a hand. The first experimental convoys, assembled at Gibraltar and Hampton Roads, steamed to British ports with the loss of only one straggler. Marines on the Western Front -- 1917-1918: The Western Front, the border between German occupied land and Allied territory, stretched from the North Sea south to the Swiss border. The two armies fought from an elaborate system of trenches that ran the entire length of the Front. When the United States joined the war, some 25,000 Marines joined Allied forces in the trenches. At Chateau-Thierry, Aisne-Marne, Saint-Mihiel, and Meuse-Argonne, they suffered some 2,500 casualties and built their reputation as America's preeminent fighting force. German Surrender -- November 1918: By the end of 1918, Germany was badly battered. Allied convoys had defeated her submarines. Her armies had been pushed back on German soil. Her High Seas Fleet was in mutiny, and her population reduced to near starvation level. With revolution imminent, Germany could see no other solution but surrender. Kaiser Wilhelm II, the German emperor, abdicated on November 8. Two days later, German representatives signed the armistice document. Defining the Marine Corps Doctrine: After World War I, the Marine Corps more clearly defined its critical role in the seizure and defense of advanced bases. In 1921, Maj Gen John A Lejeune, then Commandant of the Marine Corps, commissioned a study on potential amphibious targets in the Pacific. This groundbreaking analysis was followed by additional studies in 1931 and 1938 that became the foundation for the successful Allied amphibious campaigns of World War II. Naval Disarmament: In 1922, following the carnage of World War I, the United States, Great Britain, Japan, France, and Italy signed the Five Power Naval Treaty, which set limits on capital ship tonnage. As an immediate result, thirty obsolete American ships went to the scrap yards. A few exceptions to the tonnage limits were allowed: England kept the Hood, Japan the Mutsu, and the United States converted Lexington and Saratoga from battle cruisers to aircraft carriers. Aircraft: In 1903, Wilbur and Orville Wright made the first successful heavier-than-air flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina. At first, the Navy and Army thought the most promising missions for this new invention would be limited to scouting and fire control. In 1912, the first naval aviation unit was established in Annapolis, Maryland. Two years later, Navy aircraft were employed in their first operations -- scouting and spotting enemy forces -- during actions in Vera Cruz, Mexico. By 1930, it was clear that flight offered even more strategically important possibilities. Aviation came to Annapolis in 1911 when an aerodrome was established at Greenbury Point. The first pilot to arrive was Lt John Rodgers, Naval Aviator No 2. His airpalne, a Wright-build B-1, arrived in a box. On September 7, Rodgers demonstrated his flying skill to an audience of midshipmen. Aircraft Carriers: The idea of using aircraft carriers for more sophisticated roles was successfully tested during fleet war games. In 1929, the carrier Saratoga "bombed" the Panama Canal. A few years later, US carriers "attacked" Pearl Harbor. Flight: On November 14, 1910, Lt Eugene B Ely took off from an improvised flight deck on the cruiser Birmingham in Hampton Roads, Virginia. Two months later, he landed a plane on board the USS Pennsylvania in San Francisco Bay. The two flights demonstrated the feasibility of the aircraft carrier. Bradley A Fiske (1854-1942) Fiske's greatest contributions to the Navy were technical: inventing a number of important electrical and ordnance devices. He was one of the first officers to comprehend the revolutionary possibilities of naval aviation. His many books helped give the public a better understanding of the role of the modern Navy. Although airplanes and torpedoes were a natural marriage, the chief problem was how to get the torpedo consistently to drop on time. Bradley Fiske developed the first workable torpedo release, making the torpedo bomber a feasible weapon. USNA 1874 Theodore G Ellyson (1885-1928) Ellyson was the first naval officer to be designated an aviator. In 1912, he flew a plan from a compressed air catapult mounted on a barge in Potomac River. He used his aeronautical skills during World War I to develop successful tactics for submarine chasers. He was awarded the Navy Cross for his efforts. Sadly, Ellyson died in a plane crash while on a night flight traveling from Norfolk, Virginia to Annapolis. USNA 1905
49. NAMUP2_110130_481.JPG: US Fleet Painting: US Fleet in the Straits of Magellan on the morning of February 8, 1908.
50. NAMUP2_110130_489.JPG: Chinese Chairs, Table and Cloisonne Vase: Upon leaving Yokohama, half of the fleet visited Amoy, China. During the visit, the Dowager Empress Tzu Hsi celebrated what would be her last birthday. To mark the occasion, she gave a silver bowl the American admiral, a set of chairs and table inlaid with mother of pearl to each of the ship's captains, and a cloisonne vase to each officer. These table and chairs were a gift to Capt. Frank C. Beatty, commanding officer of the battleship Wisconsin.
51. NAMUP2_110130_499.JPG: Various medals picked up by William Benson during the Great White Fleet cruise.
52. NAMUP2_110130_501.JPG: William S. Benson 1855-1932 Following graduation, Benson served at sea and made a round the world cruise in the new dispatch boat USS Dolphin. He was involved in coast survey and hydrographic duties and was an instructor at the Naval Academy. In 1911, Captain Benson became the first commanding officer of the battleship Utah. As tensions heightened on the eve of World War I, Benson was promoted to rear admiral and became the first Chief of Naval Operations. Promoted to admiral in 1916, he oversaw the wartime expansion of the Navy and its operations in Europe. After the armistice, Benson participated in the peace negotiations in France.
53. NAMUP2_110130_507.JPG: Order of St. Gregory Medal, Papal Decoration.
54. NAMUP2_110130_519.JPG: Order of the Rising Sun
55. NAMUP2_110130_544.JPG: John A. Lejeune (1867-1942): Lejeune received his commission in the Marine Corps after graduating from the Naval Academy. During World War I, Lejeune received orders to France. Promoted to major general, he became the first Marine officer to hold an Army divisional command. His Second Division fought at Saint-Mihiel, Blanc Mont, and the Argonne. After the war, he served as Major General Commandant of the Marine Corps and helped determine the role of Marines during World War II. He is often referred to as "the greatest of all Leathernecks," having served more than forty years at the Marine Corps. USNA 1888
56. NAMUP2_110130_550.JPG: Mine Body: To combat enemy submarines, the Allies laid three mine barrages. The most famous was between northern Great Britain to Norway across the North Sea. In November 1917, some 70,000 mines were planted in a field 230 miles long and 15 to 20 miles wide. Possibly one German submarine was lost as a result of the effort.
57. NAMUP2_110130_556.JPG: Flag: On October 9, 1918, the destroyer Shaw's rudder jammed. Unable to maneuver, the destroyer was struck by the British transport Aquitania, cutting off 90 feet of Shaw's bow. The destroyed contained the fires and flooding and managed to reach port forty miles away. The ensign was flying from Shaw at the time of the collision.
58. NAMUP2_110130_562.JPG: German Submarine: In the first three months of 1917, German U-boats sank about 1.3 million tons of Allied and neutral shipping. A German POW constructed this model of a U-boat.
59. NAMUP2_110130_567.JPG: Model of WWI Destroyer: Because of the German submarine threat, the United States Navy placed a high priority on building and manning destroyers. The Navy laid down 273 new destroyers, often at the expense of capital ships already under construction.
60. NAMUP2_110130_572.JPG: Model of Submarine Chaser of WWI: A total of 440 sub chasers were built during World War I for operations against German U-boats. After the war, some were stationed at the Naval Academy to train midshipmen in ship-handling, the forerunners of the current fleet of Yard Patrol craft.
61. NAMUP2_110130_584.JPG: Flag: The ensign of the UC-113, one of four German submarines to surrender to the French at Brest shortly after the armistice.
62. NAMUP2_110130_598.JPG: Maori War Club: Lt. Henry W. Cooke received this Maori war club when the fleet visited New Zealand. Mementoes: Wherever the fleet stopped, whether in the West Coast of the United States or in distant Pacific nations, it was received with great enthusiasm. Banquets and entertainments awaited the officers and crews of the ships. And, like sailors of all times, they collected mementoes -- souvenirs to remind them of their 'round the world cruise.
63. NAMUP2_110130_607.JPG: Great White Fleet Models: The models of the battleships of the Great White Fleet are all of a scale of 1 to 1200.
64. NAMUP2_110130_635.JPG: Key to the City of Seattle: Rear Adm Robley Evans commanded the fleet upon its departure from Norfolk. Because of illness, he was relieved by Rear Adm Charles S Speery at San Francisco. When the fleet reached Seattle in May 1908, Speery was presented the keys to the city in a decorative presentation box.
65. NAMUP2_110130_658.JPG: Richard E. Byrd (1888-1957): Byrd graduated from the Naval Academy in 1912 and served in World War I. During the war, he learned the relatively new skill of flying an airplane. He became renowned for his experiments with instruments that could navigate over water, leading to his work on the first US Navy flight across the Atlantic. Byrd would take part in three Antarctic expeditions, and consulted on many others. He won countless awards for his work, including the Navy Cross. Byrd and the South Pole: In 1926, Richard E. Byrd and Floyd Bennett made the first flight over the North Pole, confirming Robert Peary's observations. Two years later, Byrd initiated the first of three expeditions to the Antarctic, the first United States explorations of the region since those of Charles Wilkes ninety years earlier.
66. NAMUP2_110130_667.JPG: Flier: Flier describing the flight over the North Pole. Envelope Postmarked "City of New York": This envelope is postmarked November 1929 from "The City of New York," one of the ships used by Byrd in the first Antarctic expedition, while it was in Dunedin, New Zealand. Envelope Postmarked "Little America": Byrd's base of operation[s] in Antarctic was called "Little America." This envelope was mailed and postmarked from the base.
67. NAMUP2_110130_674.JPG: Sextant: A sextant used on Byrd's 1938 expedition to the Antarctic
68. NAMUP2_110130_699.JPG: Wine Glass and Key: A wine glass and key to the chartroom were kept as souvenirs of the captured German ship Odenwald.
69. NAMUP2_110130_709.JPG: Note Written in Blood: In the attack on Panay, the gunboat's commanding officer Lt Cmdr James J Hughes was incapacitated by wounds. Despite wounds to his hands and throat, executive officer Arthur F (Tex) Anders gave the order to return fire on the attackers by writing in his own blood. World War II: Short of War: For the United States, the 1920s and 1930s was a period of isolationism. Congress, reflecting the will of the people, rejected involvement in world affairs and foreign wars, failing even to join the League of Nations. But German and Japanese expansion threatened America's traditional friends. With the advent of the war in Europe in September 1939, the United States began edging closer to war with Germany. From "Cash and Carry" to "Lend Lease" to convoying supply ships, the United States strove to support Britain in its war with fascism without actually declaring war. The attack on Pearl Harbor made the issue moot; the United States was at war. The Panay Incident: December 1937: The United States had maintained a presence in China for many years. Japanese aggression in the fall of 1937 added a new threat to the situation. When Japanese troops advanced on the city of Nanking, Americans evacuated. On 11 December, the last American boarded the gunboat Panay. The next day, Japanese fighters and bombers attacked Panay, wounding many and killing three. Although the Japanese government disavowed the attack and paid compensation for the losses, relations between Japan and the United States continued to deteriorate. It took less than half an hour for the Japanese to reduce the Panay to a sinking wreck. Her captain and 47 other men were wounded; two sailors and one civilian passenger were killed. "Neutrality Patrol" in the Atlantic -- 1939-1941: Within days of war's outbreak in September 1939, the United States declared its neutrality and established a naval patrol to keep the war from American shores. Yet, the United States soon became less than neutral, exchanging old American destroyers for British naval bases in the Atlantic and Caribbean and then instituting the Lend-Lease policy. The United States also provided convoy escorts for British supply ships. As a result, several US Navy ships would come under attack during this uncertain time. On the night of 16-18 October 1941, a German wolfpack struck a convoy of fifty merchantmen streaming from Canada to Great Britain. A torpedo struck USS Kearny, one of four American destroyers guarding the convoy. Eleven men were killed and 24 wounded, the first United States Navy losses of World War II. On Halloween 1941, USS Reuben James and four other American destroyers were escorting a convoy of 44 ships. Just before dawn, a German torpedo split the destroyer in half. One hundred fifteen men were killed, including all of the ship's officers. Reuben James was the first United States Navy ship lost in the war. A month before the United States entered the war, the light cruiser Omaha and destroyer Somers were patrolling the Brazilian coast when they encountered a German blockade runner loaded with rubber from Japan. The Odenwald was boarded and taken to Port of Spain, Trinidad, as a "suspected slaver." On the Verge -- 1941: American leaders now saw war as inevitable. Preparations were well underway. On 1 February, the Navy was reorganized so that the United States Fleet, Asiatic Fleet, and the neutrality patrol squadron became, respectively, the Pacific Fleet under the command of Adm Husband E Kimmel; Asiatic Fleet, Adm Thomas C. Hart; and Atlantic Fleet, Adm Ernest J King. That August, President Franklin D Roosevelt [and] British Prime Minister Winston Churchill held a face-to-face meeting known as the Atlantic Conference. In secrecy, President Roosevelt boarded the heavy cruiser Augusta and sailed to Argentina, Newfoundland. There, he met with Prime Minister Churchill to outline their war objectives in the Atlantic Charter. Husband E Kimmel (1882-1968): Kimmel was the son of a former Confederate army major. In 1915, he served briefly as an aide to Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D Roosevelt. Kimmel commanded the battleship New York in 1933-34 and received his promotion to rear admiral in 1937. On 1 February 1941, Kimmel was chosen over 46 other admirals to take command of the newly created Pacific Fleet. He was in that billet on 7 December 1941. USNA 1904 Thomas C Hart (1877-1971): Soon after graduation from the Naval Academy. Hart served in the Spanish-American War. He went to command a submarine division during World War I. Hart was promoted to rear admiral in 1929 and served as Superintendent of the Naval Academy beginning in 1931. On 25 July 1939, Admiral Hart was appointed to command of the Asiatic Fleet. It was his role to try and stop the powerful Japanese Navy with his few, aged ships. USNA 1897
70. NAMUP2_110130_712.JPG: Panay Lights and Bell: The gunboat was not salvaged, but the Panay's bell, the port side light, and a running light were recovered.
71. NAMUP2_110130_735.JPG: NC-4: NC-4 was very large for its time, with a wingspan of 126 feet and a length just over 68 feet. The NC-4 could carry its six-man crew 1,475 nautical miles at a maximum speed of 90 knots.
72. NAMUP2_110130_765.JPG: Technology & Tactics: Decades of Development By 1940, weapons and techniques barely dreamed of a few years earlier were ready for deployment. These included submarines, aircraft, and innovations like using oil for fuel. However, these emerging technologies and tactics would not be fully proven until tested in battle. It would take a new generation of leaders to give the Navy a new direction and move away from policies of the past. 1900-1940 Shipboard Innovations: The early decades of the 20th century saw a revolution in ship design. The first all-big-gun ship, the British Dreadnought, was rushed to completion in 1906. Improvements in gun aiming, adapted from British practice, increased the percentage of hits on a target. Using oil as fuel instead of coal had a host of advantages. For example, oil reduced the smoke emitted by ship[s], which, combined with new, smokeless gunpowder, allowed crews to see enemy ships at much longer ranges. Continuous-aim fire: Although the US was victorious in the 1898 Battle of Santiago, only about three percent of American rounds found their target. As a result, Lt William S Sims decided that the Navy should adopt the "continuous-aim fire" technique invented by the British. By using improved elevated gear, guns could be continuously pointed at the target. William J. Sims (1858-1936): As Inspector of Target Practice, Sims was instrumental in increasing the effectiveness of naval gunfire five hundred percent. He served as Naval Aide to President Theodore Roosevelt, and then, with American entry into World War I, assumed command of all American destroyers operating from British bases. In 1917, he was appointed Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters. Following the war, he became, for the second time, President of the Naval War College. USNA 1880 Submarines: Developments in the early 1900s helped make the submarine a practical weapon. The 1908 invention of a reliable gyrocompass allowed subs to cruise underwater, while adoption of diesel engines in 1909 improved submarine safety and increased cruising range. Service in submarines, particularly the earliest ones, was never safe. Accidents and equipment failures cost the lives of many submariners. But the Navy learned from the tragedies, and strove to perfect escape and rescue techniques that would save other lives. The Holland: In 1900, the Navy purchased its first submarine from inventor John P Holland. The submarine Holland was 54 feet long, displaced 74 tons, had a single screw, and was driven on the surface by a gasoline engine and under water by batteries and an electric motor. Armed with a single, fixed torpedo tube, Holland had a surface speed of seven knots, and could cruise submerged at slow speed for 50 miles. The Navy was so impressed with the submarine that it ordered five more. Four days after its commissioning, Holland left for Annapolis where it remained for almost five years, training cadets, officers, and enlisted men. ... USS S-4: The S-4 was laid down in December 1917 and commissioned 23 months later. After trials in the Atlantic, S-4 sailed for the Philippines, arriving there in December 1921, achieving the longest cruise made by a submarine to that time. In 1927, she was accidentally rammed and sunk by a Coast Guard vessel. Divers communicated with the men trapped inside by tapping on the hull. Severe weather thwarted rescue operations. Three months later, S-4 was raised and repaired. She served with the fleet until 1936. USS Squalus: Twelve years after the loss of S-4, the submarine Squalus sank off the coast of Portsmouth, New Hampshire. The rescue of 33 of the submarine's crew using the newly developed McCann rescue chamber was one of the first successful recoveries of its kind. Nevertheless, 26 of her men were trapped in the after part of the ship and could not be recovered. The submarine was raised and, renamed Sailfish, saw duty in the Pacific during World War II. Charles B Momsen (1896-1967): While serving with the Submarine Safety Test Unit on board USS S-4, "Swede" Momsen developed the escape apparatus that became known as the Momsen lung. The innovation earned him the Distinguished Service Medal. Momsen's World War II service included an investigation into the problems with American torpedoes and command of the first submarine wolf pack in enemy waters. After the war, he helped evacuate Japanese troops from China, Manchuria, Formosa, and the Pacific Islands.
73. NAMUP2_110130_774.JPG: Model of USS S-2: While this is not a model of S-4, the S-2 was laid down the same year as S-4, and they share many characteristics.
74. NAMUP2_110130_787.JPG: Diving Lung: This, the first diving lung, was tested on board S-4 at Key West, Florida, the year after the submarine was recovered.
75. NAMUP2_110206_06.JPG: NC-4: NC-4 was very large for its time, with a wingspan of 126 feet and a length just over 68 feet. The NC-4 could carry its six-man crew 1,475 nautical miles at a maximum speed of 90 knots.
76. NAMUP2_110206_13.JPG: Fabric and Medal: NC-4 reached Plymouth, England, on May 31, 1919. A medal was struck to commemorate the flight and pieces of the aircraft's fabric covering and metal struts were kept as souvenirs. NC-4: In May 1919, three Navy patrol aircraft set out to cross the Atlantic. NC-4 accomplished the flight, becoming the first aircraft to make the crossing. ...
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