BGuthrie Photos: DC -- Donald W. Reynolds Center -- Portraits

DC -- Donald W. Reynolds Center -- Portraits:

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Copyrights: All pictures were taken by amateur photographer Bruce Guthrie (me!) who retains copyright on them. Free for non-commercial use with attribution. See the [Creative Commons] definition of what this means. "Photos (c) Bruce Guthrie" is fine for attribution. (Commercial use folks including AI scrapers can of course contact me.) Feel free to use in publications and pages with attribution but you don't have permission to sell the photos themselves. A free copy of any printed publication using any photographs is requested. Descriptive text, if any, is from a mixture of sources, quite frequently from signs at the location or from official web sites; copyrights, if any, are retained by their original owners.

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Specific picture descriptions: Photos above with "i" icons next to the bracketed sequence numbers (e.g. "[1] ") are described as follows:
1. SIPGPO_090124_22.JPG: Winfield Scott, 1786-1866 Winfield Scott was about twenty-eight years old and at the beginning of a long and distinguished military career when he was portrayed by America's first native-born sculptor, William Rush. A hero after the Battle of Chippewa-one of the few land victories of the War of 1812-Scott posed in Philadelphia, where he was recuperating from wounds that he received through his reckless bravery at the Battle of Lundy's Lane. "Put him down a major general. I have done with objections to his youth," President James Monroe declared. William Rush, c 1814
2. SIPGPO_090124_26.JPG: Winfield Scott
3. SIPGPO_090307_024.JPG: Alexander Graham Bell
4. SIPGPO_090307_030.JPG: Alexander Graham Bell
5. SIPGPO_090307_035.JPG: William Cullen Bryant
6. SIPGPO_090307_041.JPG: William Cullen Bryant
7. SIPGPO_090307_047.JPG: Alexander Graham Bell
8. SIPGPO_090307_051.JPG: Alexander Graham Bell
9. SIPGPO_090307_092.JPG: Henry Baldwin Hyde
10. SIPGPO_090307_107.JPG: Louisa May Alcott (detail)
11. SIPGPO_090307_114.JPG: John Quincy Adams Ward, 1830-1910 John Quincy Adams Ward was the first distinctly American sculptor. His work resonates with the spirit of the age, rejecting Victorian sentimentality in favor of a hard-edged realism in representing forthrightly masculine figures. Even his allegorical subjects were remarkably realistic. For instance, Ward created Indian Hunter (1868), his first commission for Central Park, only after making an extensive study of Indians of the Northwest. His style appealed to the thrusting self-image of America's business and political leaders, as well as a public confident that America was emerging as an industrial and political power in the world. Charles Henry Niehaus, 1911 cast after pre-1901 original
12. SIPGPO_090307_124.JPG: John Quincy Adams Ward
13. SIPGPO_090307_139.JPG: Nathaniel Bowditch (detail)
14. SIPGPO_090328_003.JPG: Edward R. Murrow, 1908-1965 In the mid-1950s, Edward R. Murrow was the dean of broadcast journalism -- a genre he had pioneered. Hired as director of news by CBS in 1935, Murrow broadcast the outbreak of war in Europe; from 1938 to 1945, his signature opening, "This... is London," brought the war into American living rooms. In the postwar's new medium, television, Murrow launched "See It Now" (1951-58), a news documentary program that he called "an entirely new weapon of journalism." Its high point was a March 1954 broadcast that helped topple Senator Joseph McCarthy. Murrow also hosted the popular "Person to Person," in which he visited celebrities in their homes during prime time (1952-61). Murrow left CBS in 1961 and directed the United States Information Agency until his death in 1965. Al Hirschfeld, 1956.
15. SIPGPO_090328_009.JPG: Liberace, 1919-1987 When caricaturist Al Hirschfeld depicted Liberace in 1954, the pianist -- wearing white tie and tails, and posed at a candelabra-bedecked concert grand -- was television's reigning matinee idol: his weekly show was carried by 217 stations (more than "I Love Lucy"), and his concert tours sold out across the nation. He played popular music, favorite parlor songs, and classics "without the dull parts." Flamboyant costumes were added to his ostentatious style of performance. For the country's 1976 Bicentennial, he wore red, white, and blue hot pants and twirled a baton; for his 1984 appearance at Radio City Music Hall, he arrived on stage in a chauffeured Rolls Royce and danced with the Rockettes while draped in a $300,000 rhinestone-studded Norwegian blue fox cape with a sixteen-foot train. Liberace never forgot that "without the show, there is no business." Al Hirschfeld, 1954
16. SIPGPO_090328_015.JPG: Eliot Porter, 1901-1990 One of America's foremost nature photographers, Eliot Porter helped support the growth of the environmental and ecology movements, especially with the books he published with the Sierra Club. Trained as a biochemist, Porter gave up science for professional photography after receiving encouragement from photographers Ansel Adams and Alfred Steiglitz; Steiglitz launched Porter's career with a one-man show at his famous gallery in 1938. Unlike Adams, Porter worked in color, perhaps because his scientific background attuned him to technical advances in color processing. Porter's popular breakthrough came in 1962, when the Sierra Club sponsored his photographic manifesto on the environment, in "Wilderness Is the Preservation of the World." Porter's series of books for the club helped make it America's leading environmental organization. Eliot was the brother of painter Fairfield Porter, who captures him here in a moment of quiet repose. Fairfield Porter, 1975.
17. SIPGPO_090328_026.JPG: Frank O'Hara, 1926-1966 If Jackson Pollock was an action painter, Frank O'Hara was an action poet. A member of the postwar New York School of poets and writers, he rejected academicism and theory, instead praising spontaneity and first impressions. O'Hara, who was a curator at the Museum of Modern Art, wrote a poem every day, usually basing it on the perceptions and experiences gleaned on a lunchtime walk. He called these his "I do this, I do that" poems, and in them he mixed the ephemeral with the epochal. Despite their personal point of view, O'Hara's poems, with their camera-eye take on the city, create an abstract effort not unlike the flung paint of Pollock's canvases. After O'Hara's premature death in a car accident, his executors discovered hundreds of unpublished poems, which have since appeared posthumously, cementing his stature as a major postwar modernist. Alice Neel, 1960
18. SIPGPO_090328_032.JPG: Robert F. Kennedy, 1925-1968 Robert F. Kennedy was well known to Americans in early 1968 when he announced his campaign to run for president. As attorney general in the administration of his elder brother, John F. Kennedy, Robert established a growing reputation as a strong and vocal advocate for civil rights and economic justice for the poor. Nine months after the assassination of President Kennedy, Robert, who had long been at odds personally and philosophically with Vice President Lyndon Johnson, resigned. Kennedy next won a US Senate seat in 1964. In June of 1968, with President Johnson refusing to run for re-election, Kennedy was proving to be a viable candidate for the Democratic nomination when he was assassinated in a Los Angeles hotel just after winning the California primary. This portrait of Kennedy by Louis Glanzman appeared on the cover of Time magazine the following week, on June 14, 1968. Louis Glanzman, 1968
19. SIPGPO_090328_040.JPG: Willem de Kooning, 1904-1997 -- De Kooning Breaks Through: Red Groom's playful lithographic portrait of Willem de Kooning celebrates the achievements of this important abstract expressionist painter. Replete with visual puns, the work had de Kooning literally "breaking through" the surface of Groom's print, suggesting the transformative nature of de Kooning's contribution to the history of art. Grooms's imagery specifically references de Kooning's 1952-53 "Woman and Bicycle," one of a series of "Woman" paintings by de Kooning that integrated popular-culture imagery into a fine-art context and bridged the divide between abstraction and figuration. Appropriately, the same dynamics animate Grooms's lithograph. Red Grooms, 1987
20. SIPGPO_090328_047.JPG: Rachel Carson, 1907-1964 As a government scientist, Rachel Carson had become concerned about the ecological impact of pesticides, particularly DDT, and in 1962 she published the groundbreaking "Silent Spring." Finely written and passionate reasoned, "Silent Spring" exploded into national consciousness and can be said to have started the modern environmental movement. It was not only an argument for ecological reform, but also a warning that an active citizenry had to be skeptical of the actions of large institutions, both private and public. This attitude of skepticism became a dominant theme in the political culture of the 1960s and 1970s. Una Hanbury, 1965
21. SIPGPO_090328_071.JPG: Marilyn Monroe, 1926-1962 Based on a publicity still from Marilyn Monroe's 1953 film "Niagara," Andy Warhol's portrait of the film star conveys both her glamour and fragility. A gifted performer, Monroe became an iconic sex symbol, entertaining troops in Korea and electrifying movie audiences. Despite her success, she maintained an air of vulnerability. Warhol capitalized on these contradictions, first portraying Monroe after her 1962 death from a drug overdose. Using silkscreens, he created multiple renditions of the actress. By emphasizing the images' off-register printing, Warhol created a powerful metaphor for the dissolution of Monroe's career and the blinding impact of her overexposure. In this screenprint, part of a series of ten, Monroe's sensual features dissolve into a nearly impenetrable mask as Warhol's non-naturalistic colors and their improper alignment produce a jarring effect, at once familiar and alienating. Andy Warhol, 1967
22. SIPGPO_090328_076.JPG: Robert Frost, 1874-1963 Robert Frost was one of the few modern American poets who combined critical with popular acclaim. His best poetry was written in the 1920s and 1930s, as America was discovering its national and regional histories. Frost's poems about rural life in New England -- "West Running Brook" and "Birches," for example -- struck a chord because they were readable, yet imbued with larger questions about human nature, mortality, and man's fate. Frost liked to play the naive rustic, but he was a dedicated craftsman and America's last great formalist poet. Criticizing modern poetry, he said that writing poems with structure was like "playing tennis without a net". Walker Hancock , 1969 cast after 1950 original
23. SIPGPO_090328_092.JPG: Merce Cunningham, 1919- : One of the most influential choreographers of our era, Merce Cunningham revolutionized dance by embracing everyday movement and chance operations. During the course of his career, Cunningham has repeatedly collaborated with visual artists, including Andy Warhol, who lent his helium-filled silver pillows to Cunningham's performance "RainForest" in 1968. Warhol created this portrait as a proof for a print included in the portfolio "Cunningham I," a fund-raising effort for the Merce Cunningham Dance Company. Fascinated with the expressive potential of different paper patterns, Warhol experimented here with handmade English Cockerell paper. Whether by chance or by design, the gray, flamelike pattern blurs both Cunningham's face and feet, suggesting that the dancer is most recognizable through his lithe motion and physical extension. Andy Warhol, 1974
24. SIPGPO_090328_100.JPG: James Dewey Watson, 1928- Nobel Prize-winning scientist James Dewey Watson was honored, with his collaborator Francis Crick, for their formulation of the double-helix structure of deoxyribonucleic acid in 1953. DNA, as it is abbreviated, is the carrier of genetic information in nearly all living organisms. Watson received his Ph.D. in zoology and started out working on the genetics of birds and the effect of viruses on DNA. In 1952, he shifted to discovering DNA's structure. Working in England with Crick, and after several failures, he two proposed the elegant double-helical configuration in March 1953. Watson characterized this as discovering "the secret of life," since it revealed the physical and chemical basis of heredity. Returning to America, with positions at Caltech and then Harvard, Watson shifted yet again to working on RNA (ribonucleic acid), the substance that carries out the instructions dictated by DNA. Jack Beal, 1995
25. SIPGPO_090328_110.JPG: Alice Neel, 1900-1984 In making a portrait, one critic observed, Alice Neel "hurls shafts that hit the mark but do not sting," pinpointing the penetrating yet benevolent quality in the figure studies for which she is best known. Neel adhered to portraiture in the midst of the abstract expressionist movement and was consequently ignored by the art world until shortly before two retrospective exhibitions held during the early 1970s. "Life begins at seventy!" she said of her career's newfound transformation. In 1975, she began this shocking, endearing, and utterly unconventional self-portrait,m which was not completed until 1980. As Neel noted, "the reason my cheeks got so pink was that it was so hard for me to paint that I almost killed myself painting it." A striking challenge to the centuries-old convention of idealized femininity, Neel's only painted self-portrait is wonderfully suggestive of her bohemian, bawdy character. Alice Neel, 1980
26. SIPGPO_090328_119.JPG: Eudora Welty, 1909-2001 Writer Eudora Welty devoted the bulk of her novels and short stories to portraying her native South. The originality of her work led critics to rank her with such literary giants of the twentieth century as William Faulkner and Flannery O'Connor. One observer has suggested that only other southerners can fully appreciate Welty's command of local idiom and her painstaking attention in time and place. According to one admirer, however, Welty demonstrated "that the deeper one goes into the heart of a region, the more one transcends its... boundaries." Among Welty's best-known works are "The Ponder Heart," which earned her the American Academy of Arts and Letters' prestigious William Dean Howells Medal in 1955, and "The Optimist's Daughter," for which she received a Pulitzer Prize in 1973. Both residents of Jackson, Mississippi, Welty and the artist who painted her portrait, Mildred Wolfe, knew each other for many years. The writer posed for the likeness seated in her own living room and in her favorite chair. Mildred Nungester Wolfe, 1988
27. SIPGPO_090328_129.JPG: MFK Fisher, 1908-1992: Mary Frances Kennedy Fisher wrote elegant books and essays about the history, sociology, and pleasures of food. From the joys of a tangerine section toasted on a radiator and then cooled on a snowy windowsill to the taste of her first raw oyster, Fisher, with her sensuous prose, won the respect of many literary figures, including WH Auden and John Updike, who called her "a poet of the appetites." She spent much of her life in California, where she wrote such classics as "Consider the Oyster" (1941) and "How to Cook a Wolf" (1942), which gave advice on cooking with wartime rations. Late in life, while living in Glen Ellen, California, she sat for Ginny Stanford, who captured a strong woman looking into a unknown future "illuminated by a single silver icon." Ginny Stanford, 1991
28. SIPGPO_090328_138.JPG: Marjory Stoneman Douglas, 1890-1998: By the time she was fifty, Marjory Stoneman Douglas could look back with satisfaction on a varied career that included working as a reporter, columnist, and editor for the Miami Herald and as a successful short-story writer. But her most significant work began in the mid-1940s, when she wrote a book on the Florida Everglades. "The Everglades: River of Grass" (1947) became an instant best-seller, and for the public at large it called attention to the ecological important of this vast expanse of water and wildlife. Many years later, the book also led to Douglas's founding of the Friends of the Everglades, which grew into a major force in the campaign to protect the area's natural integrity against a host of human-created abuses. In 1993, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. Menden Hall, 1993
29. SIPGPO_090328_149.JPG: Ornette Coleman, 1930- : For both his musical virtuosity on alto saxophone and his compositions, Ornette Coleman is one of the major forces in American music in the late twentieth century. Like painter Jackson Pollock and writer Walt Whitman, who rejected traditional forms as too constrictive for human expression, Coleman broke with existing jazz diction, creating a raw sound that seemed to deliberately avoid the musical scale in favor of "playing in the cracks." In 1959, Coleman's quartet produced "The Shape of Jazz to Come," a musical manifesto that was the aural equivalent of Pollock's abstract expressionism. Coleman disavowed the idea that "free jazz," as his music was called, was pure improvisation, maintaining that careful planning went into each composition. In the 1970s, Coleman moved into jazz funk, using electrified instruments. He is still a prolific musician, and his album "Sound Grammar" won the Pulitzer Prize for music in 2007. Frederick J. Brown, 1992
30. SIPGPO_090328_170.JPG: John Mitchell, 1913-1988 This bust of Richard Nixon's campaign manager and attorney general, John Mitchell, makes him appear invulnerable. But when the Senate opened its hearings into the Watergate scandal in May 1973, Mitchell's reputation would soon crumble as the extent of his participation in the conspiracy became fully known. In the White House, Mitchell wan an advocate of using any means to defeat the administration's opponents, both real and imagined, and his central role in both planning the break-in and stonewalling the subsequent investigation was soon revealed. He was convicted on charges of conspiracy, obstruction, and perjury; he served eighteen months in prison. Stand Glaubach, Nickel-coated plaster, 1973, Time cover, May 21, 1973, Gift of Time magazine.
31. SIPGPO_090328_184.JPG: Henry Kissinger, 1923- Commissioned by Time, Philip Pearlstein's portrait of Henry Kissinger appeared on the magazine's cover in conjunction with the release of the first volume of Kissinger's memoirs, "The White House Years," in October 1979. In his book, Kissinger reflected on his career as assistant for national security affairs and secretary of state. Excerpts published in Time described his complicated relationship with President Richard Nixon, as well as the challenges of Cold War diplomacy. Picturing Kissinger with a look of intense concentration, Pearlstein's portrait conveys his subject's seriousness of purpose and intellectual intensity, the same qualities reflected in his memoirs. The pose was no mere conceit. Unable to sit still for extended periods of time, Kissinger agreed to read while Pearlstein painted, thus enabling the artist to capture the very image of the statesman at work.
32. SIPGPO_090328_193.JPG: Linus Pauling, 1901-1994 The only recipient of two unshared Nobel Prizes -- for chemistry and peace -- Linus Pauling both advanced science and addressed its social implications. In the 1930s and 1940s, Pauling applied quantum mechanics to chemistry, inspiring new discoveries about molecular structures and leading to his 1954 Nobel Prize. Pauling's resistance to atomic weapons fueled his publication of "No More War!" in 1958 and earned him a second Nobel in 1962. A year later, the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty was implemented. Alice Neel's informal portrait depicts the scientist outside of the laboratory to indicate the breadth of his commitments. Pauling later explained, "I could have accomplished a lot ore science from 1945 to 1965. I decided ... I ought to get scientists working for world peace... Scientists have an obligation to help fellow citizens make the right decision." Alice Neel, 1969
33. SIPGPO_090328_205.JPG: Brake Virgil "Gus" Grissom, 1926-1967: Edward White, 1930-1967: Roger Chaffee, 1935-1967: Brake, which recognizes the contributions of Apollo 1 astronauts Virgil "Gus" Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee, was created in 1969 by Robert Rauschenberg as part of "Stoned Moon," a lithographic series the artist devoted to the first lunar landing. Grissom, White, and Chaffee became the first American astronauts to lose their lives while on duty when their space capsule burst into flames during a training session in January 1967. The tragedy shook the nation and led to a reassessment of the space program. But the deaths of these space pioneers also reaffirmed the importance of continuing the moon shot, which culminated in July 1969 with the safe touchdown and return of Apollo 11. In a strange but fitting coincidence, the lower segment of the lithographic stone used to print Brake cracked during the proofing process. Rauschenberg embraced this chance occurrence and printed the stone in this fashion. Robert Rauschenberg, 1969
34. SIPGPO_090328_241.JPG: Clement Greenberg, 1909-1994 Art critic and public intellectual Clement Greenberg was one of the most important advocates for American abstract painting after World War II. Championing such artists as Barnett Newman, Clyfford Still, and especially Jackson Pollock, Greenberg provided the art-historical background to what he called "abstract expressionism." Pugnacious and driven by a sense of cultural mission, Greenberg, in his criticism and in articles like "American Type' Painting" (1955), became the model of the engaged intellectual, making as many enemies as he did friends. As he said, "The first obligation of an art critic is to deliver value judgments." The art world eventually turned on Greenberg, but his four volumes of collected writings are an unmatched survey of American art and culture in the mid-twentieth century. Rene Bouche's 1955 portrait of Greenberg was praised as an abstraction "softening the edges of representation." Rene Bouche, 1955
35. SIPGPO_090328_308.JPG: George Washington Carver, 1864-1943 Born into slavery, George Washington Carver overcame the obstacles of slender means and racial discrimination to seek an education. He believed that "when you can do the common things of life in an uncommon way, you will command the attention of the world." These words, coupled with his lifelong goal to help poor black farmers trapped in sharecropping and dependency on cotton as a crop, pervaded his work at Alabama's Tuskegee Institute, where he was director of agricultural teaching and research for nearly forty years. Carver's laboratory investigations led to the discovery of more than 450 new commercial products -- ranging from margarine to library paste -- that could be extracted from previously untapped sources such as the peanut and sweet potato. He demonstrated for southern farmers the wisdom of diversifying crops, instead of relying mainly on the soil-exhausting crop of cotton. Betsy Graves Reyneau, 1942
36. SIPGPO_090328_338.JPG: James Weldon Johnson (detail)
37. SIPGPO_090328_350.JPG: Walter White, 1893-1955 Walter White headed the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) from 1931 to 1955. During these difficult years, he directed an unsuccessful struggle for an anti-lynching bill and implemented a highly successful long-range campaign of legal actions, culminating in the 1954 Supreme Court decision outlawing discrimination in the nation's schools. White's tenure at the NAACP saw it through the Great Depression, when membership and donations declined precipitously and it faced a strong challenge from the Communist Party--USA, which actively competed for African American members. After World War II and during the beginnings of the Cold War, White remained a staunch anti-Communist and stressed the need for racial justice in America, to compete with the Soviets in winning Third World allies. Due in part to White's urging, Harry Truman ran on a civil rights platform in the 1948 presidential election. Betsy Graves Reyneau, 1945
38. SIPGPO_090328_376.JPG: Thurgood Marshall, 1908-1993 Thurgood Marshall played a major role in the 1940s and 1950s as a leader in the struggle to end racial discrimination in the United States. From 1938 to 1961, he served as chief staff lawyer for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Marshall devoted much effort to tailoring arguments that led Chief Justice Earl Warren's Court to its unanimous 1954 Brown v the Board of Education of the City of Topeka decision, which ruled segregation of public schools by race as unconstitutional. But he realized the struggle was not over. At a party celebrating the Brown decision, Marshall warned his colleagues, "I don't want any of you to fool yourselves, it's just begun, the fight has just begun." He went on to become the first African American Supreme Court justice, nominated by President Lyndon Johnson in 1967. Betsy Graves Reyneau, 1956
39. SIPGPO_090328_402.JPG: Rosa Parks, 1913-2005 The modern civil rights movement in the United States began on a public bus in Montgomery, Alabama, on December 1, 1955. African Americans seamstress Rosa Parks refused the driver's request to give up her seat in the first row of the "colored" section to a white passenger. "I knew someone had to take the first step and I made up my mind not to move." Sculptor Marshall D. Rumbaugh depicts Parks as she is being escorted to jail by the arrested officers. In protest against the unconstitutionality of Alabama's laws requiring segregated seating on public conveyances, the Montgomery black community, led by twenty-seven-year-old clergyman Martin Luther King Jr., organized a bus boycott that kept some 17,000 African Americans off the buses. The boycott lasted 382 days, until December 13, 1956, when the US Supreme Court ruled such segregation laws as unconstitutional. Marshall D. Rumbaugh, 1983
40. SIPGPO_090328_418.JPG: Rosa Parks (detail)
41. SIPGPO_090328_421.JPG: Margaret Sanger, 1879-1966 As a visiting nurse among the immigrants of New York City's Lower East Side in the early 1900s, Margaret Sanger was profoundly affected by the physical and mental toll exacted by frequent childbirth, miscarriage, and self-induced abortion. Sanger declared that "no woman can call herself free who does not own and control her body. No woman can call herself free until she can choose consciously whether she will or will not be a mother." She spent the rest of her life promoting the availability and use of birth control and is recognized nationally and internationally as a leader in the field. Joy Buba, 1972 cast after 1964 original
42. SIPGPO_090328_452.JPG: Martin Luther King, Jr., 1929-1968: In the story of the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, the figure who came to personify the substantial gains made toward eliminating racial discrimination was Atlanta preacher Martin Luther King, Jr. A key strategist in such events as the Montgomery, Alabama bus boycott and the nonviolent protests in Birmingham and Washington DC, he is remembered for his impassioned eloquence: "I have a dream that one day... this great nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: 'We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.'" For his recent efforts in leading the yearlong transit boycott in Montgomery, Time magazine selected King for its cover of February 18, 1957. King would made the cover twice more, as Man of the Year for 1963, and in 1965, Boris Chaliapin, 1957
43. SIPGPO_090328_454.JPG: Gwendolyn Brooks, 1917-2000: "Blackness is what I know best. I want to talk about it, with definitive illustration," said writer Gwendolyn Brooks. From her sensitive autobiographical novel "Maud Martha" to her popular rhythmic poem "We Real Cool," Brooks devoted her life to portraying urban African American life with poignancy, artistry, and pride. During the course of her career, Brooks received two Guggenheim Fellowships and became the first black writer to receive the Pulitzer Prize and earn election to the National Institute of Arts and Letters. Brooks wrote of this sculpture: "Sara, thank you for extending my life; for sending my life into bronze and beyond." Sara S. Miller, 1994
44. SIPGPO_090328_473.JPG: Kate Millett, 1934- The emergence of the modern feminist movement in the 1960s had initially seemed but a sidelight to the massive demonstrations for civil rights and against the Vietnam War. Yet it was clear that the growing cry for equal opportunity for women could not be ignored. In no small measure, the movement owed its quickening pulse to Kate Millett, whose 1970 book "Sexual Politics" had become something of a bible for antisexism. When Time magazine sought a personification of feminine protest for its cover in August 1970, it, not surprisingly, settled on Millett. Unfortunately, Millett herself was not pleased with the choice, feeling that no person could presume to embody the aspirations of her cause. As a result, when Alice Need asked her to pose, the refused. Instead, Neel used photographs to make this likeness. Alice Neel, 1970, Time cover, August 31, 1970
45. SIPGPO_090329_0024.JPG: Reinhold Niebuhr, 1892-1971 One of America's most influential Protestant theologians in the twentieth century, Reinhold Niebuhr became nationally known in the 1920s for his oratory and support of socialist causes. He fought against Henry Ford's labor policies, argued for the abolition of private property, and became a socialist candidate for the New York State Senate. However, his "Moral Man and Immoral Society" (1932) signaled a move away from socialism and toward the liberal theology of love. By the late 1930s, he insisted that class warfare must be put aside for the battle against fascism because a Nazi victory would devastate Western civilization. In 1944, one of his major works, "The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness," synthesized the Christian doctrine of mankind's dual nature (the capacity to do good and evil) with democratic theory and capitalism, and became an ideological basis for post-World War II liberalism. Ernest Hamlin Baker, 1948, gift of Time magazine
46. SIPGPO_090329_0037.JPG: Oveta Culp Hobby, 1905-1995 By her early thirties, Oveta Culp Hobby had helped to codify the banking laws of her native Texas, been an assistant to Houston's city attorney, and served as an editor and executive vice president of the Houston Post. Hobby's already substantial accomplishments only whetted her appetite for other challenges. When this portrait appeared on Time's cover in 1944, she was the commanding office of the Women's Army Corps, charged with directing one of this country's first experiments in utilizing women in the military. The experiment was succeeding overall, and the performance of Hobby's WACs had long since disputed the initial spate of cynical remarks about a woman's unfitness for the military. But one problem still persisted: much to Hobby's disappointment, the numbers of WAC enlistments had fallen well short of the army's original hopes. Ernest Hamlin Baker, 1944
47. SIPGPO_090329_0042.JPG: Ralph Bunche, 1904-1971 Orphaned at twelve and forced to work odd jobs to support his grandmother and two sisters, Ralph Bunche would not only achieve intellectual distinction -- contributing reports to the classic work of African American sociology, "An American Dilemma" -- but would also become one of America's most trusted and prestigious diplomats. Bunche taught political science at Howard University, was an adviser to the State Department, and a strategist for the San Francisco Conference that founded the United Nations in 1945. Later, in his position with the UN Trusteeship Division, he negotiated an armistice in the Palestinian-Israeli conflict, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1950. In the 1960s, Bunche lent his prestige to the civil rights movement, and in 1963 he received the Medal of Freedom from President Kennedy. Time magazine commissioned this portrait for a cover story in 1950, coinciding with Bunche's Nobel Prize, but it was bumped by another story and was never published. Ernest Hamlin Baker, 1950
48. SIPGPO_090329_0051.JPG: George C. Marshall, 1880-1959 George C. Marshall was, accoridng to one expert observer, the "perfect" soldier. Endowed with a quick mind, a good memory, and a superb sense of strategy, he did not particularly relish war. Yet as chief of staff during World War II, he proved to be a masterful orchestrator of military mobilization. In 1945, President Harry Truman remarked that millions of Americans had served the country well in that conflict, but it had been Marshall who "gave it victory." As capable in peace as in wartime, Marshall later became Truman's secretary of state, and it was he who unveiled in 1947 the American aid program for rebuilding Europe's war-ravaged economies. Ultimately named the Marshall Plan, this venture became one of the greatest triumphs in the entire history of American diplomacy. Thomas E. Stephens, 1949
49. SIPGPO_090329_0058.JPG: George C. Marshall (detail).
50. SIPGPO_090329_0069.JPG: Mark Clark, 1896-1984: General Mark Clark acquired his first distinction of World War II by leading a reconnaissance mission to Morocco in preparation for the Allied invasion of North African in late 1942. As Fifth Army commander and then as head of all Allied forces in Italy, he went on to play a central role in finally overcoming the stiff German resistance there; in May 1945 he had the satisfaction of accepting the surrender of German forces in Italy. Clark never let rank keep him from the front lines, and his frequent ventures into combat zones earned him the deep affection of many an enlisted man. At one point, Clark lost his temper with Pietro Annigoni's progress on this picture and stormed out of the studio, leaving his army jacket. Although Annigoni ultimately delivered the portrait, he kept Clark's jacket for use as a painting coat. Pietro Annigoni, 1946
51. SIPGPO_090329_0080.JPG: Mark Clark (detail)
52. SIPGPO_090329_0087.JPG: William Halsey, 1882-1959: Admiral "Bull" Halsey was nearing sixty when the outbreak of World War II placed him in command of American naval operations in the South Pacific. Yet age did not diminish his effectiveness, and in the war against Japan he became a chief architect of such victories as the taking of Guadalcanal and the battles of Leyte Gulf and Luzon in the Philippines. A man who had little patience with "spit and polish" regulations, Halsey sometimes came under fire for his improvisational methods. Nevertheless, no naval commander was more affectionately revered by subordinates than this squarely built maverick. Halsey's portrait was the work of Albert Murray, who was a naval combat artist during the war. He remained in the navy for several years after the war and in that time completed a number of portraits of noted officers. Albert K. Murray, 1949
53. SIPGPO_090329_0093.JPG: William Halsey (detail)
54. SIPGPO_090329_0103.JPG: Bar in the Hotel Scribe: After the Allies drove the German army out of Paris in August 1944, the bar at the city's Hotel Scribe became a favorite haunt for journalists. As one observer put it, an outgoing stream of "spruce correspondents" was always leaving the bar's comforts for the front lines and an incoming flow of "disheveled correspondents" just back from the front was eager to fill their seats. Among the Scribe's patrons was war illustrator Floyd Davis, who painted this picture for Life magazine, showing the bar filled with reporters who gathered there to talk over their news stories and complain about army press censorship. Among the individuals featured are New Yorker reporter Janet Flanner and CBS newscaster William Shirer seated at a table (lower center) with Ernest Hemingway. The unshaven, helmeted figure in the right rear is the famed war photographer Robert Capa. Floyd Davis, 1944
55. SIPGPO_090329_0112.JPG: Bar in the Hotel Scribe (detail). New Yorker reporter Janet Flanner and CBS newscaster William Shirer seated at a table with Ernest Hemingway.
56. SIPGPO_090329_0118.JPG: Bar in the Hotel Scribe (detail). The unshaven, helmeted figure in the right rear is the famed war photographer Robert Capa.
57. SIPGPO_090329_0123.JPG: Bar in the Hotel Scribe (detail)
58. SIPGPO_090329_0128.JPG: Bar in the Hotel Scribe (detail)
59. SIPGPO_090329_0139.JPG: Bar in the Hotel Scribe (detail)
60. SIPGPO_090329_0140.JPG: Chester Nimitz, 1885-1966 In the first months after Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, and American entry into World War II, the Japanese push to dominate the Asian Pacific seemed unstoppable. As commander of the Pacific Fleet, Admiral Chester Nimitz was charged with halting that drive, and halt it he did. Under his orchestration, American naval forces turned back the Japanese at the Battle of the Coral Sea in May 1942, and at the Battle of Midway that June they dealt a blow from which Japan's navy never recovered. By war's end, Nimitz was one of the most respected leaders of the Allied cause. It is thought that the backdrop in Nimitz's portrait is the wreckage left by the Japanese at Pearl Harbor. The picture this marked the moment when Nimitz took command of the effort to come back from that devastating disaster. Dean Cornwell, 1944
61. SIPGPO_090329_0149.JPG: Chester Nimitz (detail)
62. SIPGPO_090329_0155.JPG: Chester Nimitz (detail)
63. SIPGPO_090329_0187.JPG: Charles R. Drew (detail).
64. SIPGPO_090329_0211.JPG: George S. Patton, Jr. , 1885-1945 Nicknamed "Old Blood and Guts," General George Patton Jr. had a penchant for harsh, bluntly spoken opinions that sometimes made him the object of controversy during World War II. There was, however, no debating his soldiering abilities. In the Allied drive against Axis armies in North Africa, his gift for instilling frontline discipline was critical in shaping unseasoned American soldiers into effective fighting units. His leadership proved crucial again in the invasion of Sicily, but his finest moment came during the massive German counteroffensive in northern Europe's Ardennes region in 1944-45. His part in repelling the Germans there placed beyond challenge his reputation as one of the most brilliant field commanders of the war. The inscription in the portrait's upper left corner was from Patton's declaration of May 9, 1945, telling his soldiers what an honor it had been to lead them. Boleslaw Jan Czedejowski, 1945
65. SIPGPO_090329_0218.JPG: George S. Patton, Jr. (detail).
66. SIPGPO_090329_0229.JPG: Winston Churchill, 1874-1965 As Great Britain's prime minister during World War II, it fell to Winston Churchill to cement his country's wartime alliance with the United States. The son of an American mother and an English father, he ultimately came to personify that alliance, and his wartime eloquence and shrewdness endeared him nearly as much to Americans as to his own countrymen. In recognition of his special place in the story of Anglo-American relations, Congress made him an honorary citizen in 1963. Early in 1945, Churchill met with his two allies, Franklin Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin, at the Russian town of Yalta, where they reached agreements on strategies for the last phases of World War II. To commemorate the event, Roosevelt suggested that artist Douglas Chandor portray the trio at the conference table. The painting was never completed, however, because Stalin refused to sit for it. Douglas Chandor, 1946 Gift of Bernard Mannes Baruch
67. SIPGPO_090329_0239.JPG: Winston Churchill (detail)
68. SIPGPO_090329_0241.JPG: Winston Churchill (detail)
69. SIPGPO_090329_0250.JPG: Albert Einstein, 1879-1955 The most brilliant scientist of the twentieth century, physicist Albert Einstein inspires comparisons to Isaac Newton. By the time he reached thirty, his theory of relativity and work in quantum mechanics had revolutionized physics and profoundly altered our perception of the world. Einstein naturally commanded great prestige in the United States when he sought refuge from the Nazi regime of his native Germany in 1933. His word thus carried enormous weight in 1939 when he wrote a letter alerting President Roosevelt that Germany was moving toward the development of nuclear weaponry. Eventually, that warning gave impetus to the Manhattan Project, the top-secret venture that in 1945 produced the world's first atomic bomb. While sitting for this likeness in 1944, Einstein mused to his portraitist, "After fifty years, they will say of me, either he was a great man or a fool!" Max Westfield, 1944
70. SIPGPO_090329_0265.JPG: Dashiell Hammett, 1894-1961 Inspired to try his hand at writing mysteries after his years with the Pinkerton Detective Agency, Dashiell Hammett met a warm reception when he published his first two detective novels in 1929. But it was the appearance of "The Maltese Falcon" a year later that secured him his reputation as one of America's most original mystery writers. The hard-bitten realism and crisp dialogue of that work led critics to compare its author's style to that of Ernest Hemingway. Hammett's later books, "The Thin Man" and "The Glass Key," drew similar accolades. In defining the main difference between Hammett's works and the far more common drawing-room detective stories of the period, one admirer observed that Hammett had taken murder "out of the Venetian vase and dropped it into the alley," where, after all, it more generally occurred in real life. Edward Biberman, 1937
71. SIPGPO_090329_0270.JPG: Dashiell Hammett (detail)
72. SIPGPO_090329_0275.JPG: Carl Sandburg, 1878-1967 Perhaps no figure in American letters has ever identified himself more readily and affectionately with grassroots America than Carl Sandburg. From his poem "Chicago," hailing that city as "Hog Butcher of the World," to his efforts to preserve American folk music, and his six-volume biography of Abraham Lincoln, Sandburg seemed forever dedicated to enriching popular appreciation for his country's democratic experience. In the 1930s, as the Depression steadily eroded the optimism that had always been an underpinning of that experience, he concluded that what the public most needed from him now was a reminder of the country's resilient virtues. By 1936, he had completed "The People, Yes," a long discourse in free verse admitting to America's failings but, more important, celebrating its overriding strengths. "A foreign will find more of America" in it, one critic wrote, "than in any other book." William A. Smith, 1961
73. SIPGPO_090329_0281.JPG: Carl Sandburg (detail)
74. SIPGPO_090329_0309.JPG: David Dubinsky, 1892-1982 As a teenager in Poland, David Dubinsky was exiled to Siberia for his union activities. By 1911, he had immgrated to New York City, where he worked in the clothing industry, and joined the International Ladies' Garment Workers Union. With characteristic energy, he rose through the ranks and was elected the union's president in 1932. A fierce champion for his workers, Dubinsky battled during the 1930s to keep the ILGWU out of the hands of both organized crime and the Communist Party. Under his leadership, the union established a standard thirty-five-hour work week and focused on the workers' education. The ILGWU commissioned Dubinsky's portrait from John Sloan, who used distinctive cross-hatching and glazes to highlight his figures. He originally intended to omit these lines for a commissioned portrait, but Dubinsky's daughter, who has given the painting to the gallery , persuaded him to retain them. John Sloan, 1940
75. SIPGPO_090329_0320.JPG: David Dubinsky (detail)
76. SIPGPO_090329_0325.JPG: Erskine Caldwell, 1903-1987 Erskine Caldwell produced more than fifty books in the course of his long writing career, but he is best remembered for only two, "Tobacco Road" and "God's Little Acre." Both published in the early 1930s, these two novels focused on the most impoverished segment of rural life in Caldwell's native Georgia and in them, he depicted that world with a raw and earthy frankness that many found offensive. Others, however, applauded his candor and embraced him as a spokesman for the downtrodden. Caldwell's portrayal of southern rural poverty doubtless fed the Depression era's impulse to try to address the problem. But Caldwell always claimed that when he sat down to write, social change was not his goal. "I was never trying to prove anything," he said in 1982. "I was only trying to tell a story." Frederick S. Wight, 1934
77. SIPGPO_090329_0345.JPG: Bernard Baruch, 1870-1965 A Wall Street financier who made millions speculating on commodities, Bernard Baruch believed that governments had a limited but statutory role to play in stabilizing markets and prices. Beginning with the presidency of Woodrow Wilson, Baruch's political connections, manipulation of the press, and financial contributions to senators and presidents enabled him to assume the role of eminence grise in the Democratic Party. Baruch initially played an important role in Roosevelt's early New Deal, later rejecting FDR's ambitious public works programs, and then with World War II resumed his role as "adviser to presidents." As with Wilson during World War I, he became the administration's public spokesman and chaired committees dealing with war production. Baruch retained his influence under Truman, serving as US ambassador to the UN Atomic Energy Commission, but would lose his role as "political kingmaker" soon afterward. Douglas Chandor, 1948
78. SIPGPO_090329_0349.JPG: Bernard Baruch (detail)
79. SIPGPO_090329_0363.JPG: Walter Lippmann, 1889-1974 By the early 1930s, newspaper columnist Walter Lippmann was well established as one of the country's most widely respected political commentators, and in 1933, as Franklin Roosevelt's New Dealers began to grapple with the worst depression in American history, what Lippmann had to say about their often controversial actions was followed with considerable interest. Early in the recent presidential campaign, he had dismissed Roosevelt as an "amiable boy scout" with little "grasp of public affairs." But in the wake of the New Deal's swift implementation of depression-healing measures, Lippmann was soon praising its innovative spirit. Among the most influential columns of his career was one written in defense of Roosevelt's decision to take the country's monetary system off the gold standard. Ultimately, however, Lippmann cooled to Roosevelt's activism, fearing that it was claiming too much control over private initiative. Stanley Meltzoff, 1954
80. SIPGPO_090329_0367.JPG: Walter Lippmann (detail)
81. SIPGPO_090329_0390.JPG: Mary McLeod Bethune, 1875-1955: On paper, the New Deal programs enacted to ease the economic sufferings of the Depression were open to everyone, but in practice, racial discrimination often kept African Americans from sharing in their full benefits. A black educator and founder of Bethune-Cookman College, Mary McLeod Bethune was determined to correct that inequity. As an official in the National Youth Administration, she proved remarkably effective in assuring blacks access to its employment programs. But her efforts did not stop there. In 1936, she was the chief organizer of a group of Washington-based African American leaders known as the "black cabinet," whose self-appointed mission was to maintain steady pressure on the federal government to create better job opportunities for blacks. Bethune had no physical need for the cane she holds in her portrait. She used it, she said, to give herself "swank." Betsy Graves Reyneau, 1943
82. SIPGPO_090329_0406.JPG: Mary McLeod Bethune (detail)
83. SIPGPO_090329_0407.JPG: Edward Weston, 1886-1958 Edward Weston took up photography when he was six years old and went on to become one of the most important photographic artists of the century. A high school dropout, he described his passion: "I needed no friends now -- I was always alone with my love." Weston's long and productive career saw him range across the history of American photography, moving from soft-focus romantic attempts to replicate painting to the maturing of a modernist aesthetic that emphasized stark, sharply focused images. Weston's personal life was as tempestuous as his artist engagements, and he left a detailed record of both in his daybooks, a running commentary on his life. SUch was Weston's temperament that he destroyed his earlier work when he made the shift to a modernist emphasis on pure form, seeking "the very substance and quintessence of the thing itself." Peter Krasnow, 1925
84. SIPGPO_090329_0418.JPG: Edward Weston (detail)
85. SIPGPO_090329_0435.JPG: Babe Ruth, 1895-1948 Signed by the Boston Red Sox in 1914, the muscular six foot, two inch, 150-pound Babe Ruth was a gifted pitcher who helped the Sox win championships, but in 1919 he shifted to the outfield to utilize his even more impressive skills as a batter. The next year, the Yankees paid the Sox $125,000 for Ruth, an enormous sum for the time. In his first year as a Yankee, Ruth hit an astonishing fifty-four homers, more than any team in the American league. In 1923 -- the first season played in the Yankee Stadium ("the house that Ruth built") -- he batted .391, with 41 home runs and a .500 percent on-base percentage, and led the Yankees to their first of many World Series victories. Ruth's home-run records have been eclipsed, but many view him as the greatest who ever played the game. William Auerbach-Levy's caricatures of New York's notables appeared in many major newspapers and magazines, such as The New Yorker, Esquire, and Collier's. William Auerbach-Levy, 1929
86. SIPGPO_090329_0445.JPG: Nicola Sacco, 1891-1927: Bartolomeo Vanzetti, 1888-1927: On April 15, 1920, two gunmen took the payroll and killed the paymaster and guard of the Slater & Morrill shoe factory in South Braintree, Massachusetts. The police charged two Italian immigrants, Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti, members of a violent anarchist organization, with the crime. The district attorney denounced the defendants not only as murderers, but as foreign anarchists and atheists; some believe he even intimidated witnesses and falsified evidence. When the pair were found guilty and sentenced to die, many attributed the verdict to the "Red Scare," in which suspected radicals were arrested. Despite worldwide protests and eight motions for a new trial, both men were electrocuted. Historians disagree on whether these men were martyrs or were guilty. A news photographer made his shot in the courtroom while the manacled pair awaited sentencing. Unidentified artist, 1921
87. SIPGPO_090329_0454.JPG: Ernest Hemingway, 1899-1961 Ernest Hemingway is one of the most important writers of the twentieth century and one of the few novelists to achieve worldwide celebrity, as much for his outsized persona as his writings. Trained as a newspaperman to write in a tightly controlled style, Hemingway went to Paris after World War I to hone his craft. Part of the large crowd of expatriates who helped make Paris the cultural capital of the world, Hemingway wrote and mingled with such literary lights as Scott Fitzgerald and Gertrude Stein, as well as ordinary (and some extraordinary) Parisians. His first novel, "The Sun Also Rises" (1926), rendered his experiences in a lean, objective prose that was instantly recognizable as modern and new. Hemingway lived in Paris with his first wife, Hadley. Here he is shown with their son John, in a portrait by the well-known American photographer Man Ray, who lived in Paris from 1920 to 1940. Man Ray, 1926
88. SIPGPO_090329_0462.JPG: Irving Berlin, 1888-1969 The dean of American popular song, composer-lyricist Irving Berlin wrote more than 3,000 songs, including "God Bless America" and "White Christmas." Arriving in New York as a child, he worked to survive after his father died, selling newspapers, waiting tables, and plugging songs. Berlin's first hit song, "Alexander's Ragtime Band," became the rage of 1911; three years later, his first musical, "Watch Your Step," cemented his reputation. He wrote twenty-one Broadway scores, including "Annie Get Your Gun" (1946), which featured Ethel Merman singing "There's No Business Like Show Business." Berlin also wrote seventeen film scores, including "Top Hat" (1935), "Holiday Inn" (1947), and "Easter Parade" (1948). Mexican caricaturist Miguel Covarrubias, who worked in New York between 1924 and 1932, depicted Berlin with five other popular culture headliners for the March 1925 issue of Vanity Fair: heavyweight champion Jack Dempsey, movie star Gloria Swanson, playwright Eugene O'Neill, Broadway star Florence Mills, and stage designer Robert Edmond Jones. Miguel Covarrubias, 1925
89. SIPGPO_090329_0482.JPG: Thomas Hart Benton, 1889-1975 In the early years of his career, Thomas Hart Benton was among the young painters drawn to extraction. He soon rejected that brand of modernism, however, and emerged in the 1920s as a leader of the regionalist shcool of realism, whose primary concern was the portrayal of local life and history in American. Best known for his panoramic murals, Benton brought to his works a boldness of composition that led one critic to describe him as "the most... vigorous and virile of our painters." Benton made this portrait of himself and his wife, "Self-Portrait with Rita," at Martha's Vineyard in Massachusetts during the first year of their marraige, in the course of the residence there, he later recalled, "I really began tp mature my painting," and the monumentality of its muscular figures anticipated his later work. Self-portrait, 1922
90. SIPGPO_090329_0492.JPG: Thomas Hart Benton (detail)
91. SIPGPO_090329_0497.JPG: Gertrude Stein, 1874-1946 American expatriate-writer Gertrude Stein was a high priestess of early-twentieth-century modernism for the many who visited her fabled Paris apartment. She collected and promoted the art of the avant-garde, including that of Picasso and Matisse, and her own abstract, repetitive prose inspired the experiments of playwrights, composers, poets, and painters. "There was an eternal quality about her," sculptor Jo Davidson wrote. "She some how symbolized wisdom." He chose to depict her here as "a sort of modern Buddha." Delighted by the sculpture, Stein composed one of her famous prose portraits of Davidson, later published in Vanity Fair alongside a photograph of this work. Jo Davidson, 1922-23.
92. SIPGPO_090329_0532.JPG: F. Scott Fitzgerald, 1896-1940 It was F. Scott Fitzgerald who named the self-indulgent 1920s the Jazz Age, and his best-selling novel "This Side of Paradise" became one of the decade's first literary landmarks. But his most enduring achievement was "The Great Gatsby" (1925), which, in meticulously crafted prose, wove a modern morality tale set against a backdrop of luxury. Fitzgerald and his talented wife, Zelda, experienced -- in New York, Paris, and Hollywood -- some of the glamorous life he evoked. But struggling with financial disappointments, alcoholism, and Zelda's mental illness, Fitzgerald also probed the destructive underside of the era's bright illusions. When he met artist David Silvette in 1935, Fitzgerald was suffering from an emotional breakdown. He agreed to pose, however, and considered this a "swell" portrait. His career as chronicler of the dreams and disappointments of contemporary life was cut short by his death five years later. David Silvette, 1935
93. SIPGPO_090329_0541.JPG: E.E. Cummings, 1894-1962 Poet E.E. Cummings, who famously avoided uppercase letters in his writings, declared that "poetry and every other art was and is and forever will be strictly and distinctly a question of individuality." Believing that poetry was visual as well as verbal, Cummings defied rules of punctuation, capitalization, and arrangement of words on the page in his poems of the 1920s and 1930s, offering a new literary experience for Americans. For some, he demonstrated the rich possibilities for self-expression; others he left feeling uncomfortable and annoyed. In either case, his radicalism made an indelible mark on twentieth-century letters and, in the words of one critic, extended "the capabilities of poetry" well beyond its traditional limits. As this self-portrait indicates, Cummings was also a competent painter. After serving in World War I, he studied painting in Paris and exhibited his work in New York. Self-portrait, 1958
94. SIPGPO_090329_0558.JPG: Signing of the Treaty of Versailles: The American belief in reofrm and progress at the beginning of the twentieth fcenutry received a severe blow with the outbreak of war in Europe in 1914. Many had taken it as an article of faith that nations no longer had to resort to war to solve differences, even though Germany had been received as a threat to democratic nations by President Woodrow Wilson and others for years. Wilson clung to the principle of American neutrality, but he was obligated to protect American maritime and commercial interests, which, as the war progressed, were being interfered with by both Germany and Great Britian. Germany's deicison to begin unrestrcted submarine warfare in February 1917, in retaliation for the British naval brigade, forced Wilson's hand. On April 2, 1917, he proclaimed that the "world must be made safe for democracy," and days later Congress passed a declaration of war against Germany. After the war ended, Danish-born John C. Johansen portrayed the treaty-signing ceremonies at Versailles in 1919. The disillusion that accompanied the outbreak of World War I, supplanted by the enthusiasm and idealism accompanying America's entry into the war, retruened in the final outcome. The United Sattes and the Allies won, but it was not, as Wilson had proclaimed, the "war to end all woras." His hope for a lasting peace, protecting the sovereignty of all nations rahter than punishing the vanquished, and his vision of a League of Nations did not survive the realities of international politics. Americans turned away from idealism. Prohibition, ratified in the Eighteenth AMendment in 1919, is viewed by many historians as the last gasp of early-twentieth-century reform. Many Americans then turned their attention to the more mundane matters of making money, consuming mass-produced goods, and immersing themselves in popular culture. The Roaring Twenties had begun. John C. Johansen, 1919
95. SIPGPO_090329_0564.JPG: Signing of the Treaty of Versailles (detail)
96. SIPGPO_090329_0570.JPG: Signing of the Treaty of Versailles (detail)
97. SIPGPO_090329_0600.JPG: Billy Sunday, 1862-1935 In 1891, Billy Sunday, the star left-fielder for the Philadelphia Phillies, was offered a contract paying him considerably more money per month than an industrial worker would earn in a year. But he left the game -- for considerably less money -- to become an evangelist and Bible teacher for the YMCA. Converted four years previously and having heard the call, he would go on to become one of America's most popular evangelists. Although his career waned in the 1920s, he was still in demand, and he traveled and preached until his death, eventually reaching more than 100 million people. Ironically, his gifts as an orator and preacher eventually earned him more game and money than baseball. George Bellows, one of the preeminent illustrators in the early twentieth century, made a drawing of Sunday for Metropolitan Magazine in 1915; this 1923 lithograph reproduces his magazine illustration in reverse. George Bellows, 1923
98. SIPGPO_090329_0623.JPG: Nelson Aldrich, 1841-1915: From 1881, when the Rhode Island legislature appointed Congressman Nelson Aldrich to fill a vacant Senate seat, through his re-elections in 1886, 1892, 1898, and 1904, Aldrich became one of the most powerful figures in the upper house. Aldrich's ascendancy marked a period when the Republican Party transformed itself focusing on making America an industrial world power rather than on its original goals of emancipation and civil rights. Although Aldrich worked closely in the Senate with business leaders, he appears to have been honest, sincerely believing that the general welfare of America was best served by government and business working together. Nonetheless, Aldrich was a wealthy man who became wealthier in the Senate; it was all appropriately symbolized by his daughter's marriage to John D. Rockefeller, Jr. The Swedish artist Anders Zorn, who made numerous visits to America after 1893, noted that Aldrich was one of his more difficult sitters because of the expression of his eyes. Anders Zorn, 1913
99. SIPGPO_090329_0636.JPG: Nelson Aldrich (detail)
100. SIPGPO_090329_0646.JPG: John J. Pershing, 1860-1948 Shortly after the United States entered World War I in 1917, General John J. "Black Jack" Pershing (a nickname derived from his command of black troops in the Tenth Cavalry) took command of the American Expeditionary Forces going to Europe. His background and temperament fit with his ocuntry's emergence as a world power. Within little more than a year, he transported America's first massive twentieth-century army to the European front, where it contributed substatially to the German defeat in November 1918. Pershing deftly commanded the army and successfully held his soldiers separate from the French and British, who saw them as little more than replacements for their own massive casualties. Upon his return home, Pershing was designated "general of the armies" -- a title that no one had held since Ulysses Grant. Sir William Orpen, 1919
101. SIPGPO_090329_0653.JPG: John J. Pershing (detail).
102. SIPGPO_090329_0665.JPG: Henry Cabot Lodge, 1850-1924 Henry Cabot Lodge exuded the confidence and haughtiness that his New England ancestry, wealth, and influence bestowed. He became a powerful senator and one of the Republican Party's most respected, if not loved, leaders. Lodge joined his close friend Theodore Roosevelt in calling for the United States to increase its navy and assume a larger role in world affairs. When war broke out in Europe in 1914, he supported American neutrality but believed that Germany was the aggressor. Concerned that US security would be endangered by a German victory, he became increasingly angry with President Woodrow Wilson for not strengthening America's armed forces. Lodge successfully spearheaded the Senate's rejection of the Treaty of Versailles over the issue of the League of Nations. While he did not object to an international organization, he viewed the league as a threat to American sovereignty. John Singer Sargent, 1890
103. SIPGPO_090329_0671.JPG: Henry Cabot Lodge (detail)
104. SIPGPO_090329_0681.JPG: Charles Evans Hughes, 1862-1948 Twice a member of the Supreme Court, Charles Evans Hughes was first appointed an associate justice in 1910 but resigned in 1916 to accept the Republican nomination for president. After his narrow defeat, he returned to private law practice until 1921, when he was named secretary of state in Warren G. Harding's administration. With the Senate's rejection of the Treaty of Versailles the year before, Hughes helped forge a separate treaty with Germany, formally ending the war between the two countries. He also called a conference in Washington for the limitation of international armaments. By the time of his resignation in 1925, Hughes had given greater definition to the Monroe Doctrine and improved the quality of the US Foreign Service. In 1930, Hughes was nominated again to the high court, this time as Chief Justice. Philip Alexius de Laszlo, 1921.
105. SIPGPO_090329_0684.JPG: Charles Evans Hughes (detail)
106. SIPGPO_090329_0694.JPG: Willard Huntington Wright, 1888-1939. Under the alias SS Van Dine, Willard Huntington Wright became famous for his detective fiction, beginning with "The Benson Murder Case" (1926), which sold out in a week. But earlier, he had helped advance new ideas in art, literature, and journalism. As an editor, he transformed "Smart Set," a fashionable repository of light stories and verse, into a serious journal, publishing such writers as DH Lawrence and Theodore Dreiser. As an art critic, he championed advanced trends in the press and in his books "Modern Painting" (1915) and "The Future of Painting" (1923). Wright's brother, Stanton MacDonald-Wright, painted this portrait around 1913-14, just at the time the artist was introducing his abstract "synchromist" painting style, based on color theory. His portrait of Wright emphasizes instead the bold hues and flat planes of color that MacDonald-Wright absorbed from French painting. Stanton MacDonald-Wright, 1913-14.
107. SIPGPO_090329_0705.JPG: George Luks, 1867-1933. A prizefighter, vaudevillian, cartoonist, and newspaper sketch artist before he turned to painting, George Luks brought great vitality to his art. William Glackens suggested Luk's personality and his rapid brushwork in this painting on 1899, when the two were roommates in New York City. Along with Glackens, Robert Henri, John Sloan, and Everett Shinn, Luks chose to depict the unglamorous -- and sometimes sordid -- reality of urban life. Initially, disapproving critics dubbed them the Ashcan School. But when they rebelled against the tradition-bound National Academy shows by holding their own exhibition with three other artists in 1908, commentators heralded a new American art. The well-publicized independence of "The Eight" opened up the art world and encouraged unjuried exhibitions. Although never a modernist, Luks participated in the controversial Armory Show of 1913, which introduced the latest European trends to American audiences. William Glackens, 1899
108. SIPGPO_090329_0711.JPG: George Luks (detail)
109. SIPGPO_090329_0737.JPG: WEB Du Bois, 1868-1963 Sociologist and historian WEB Du Bois originated the policies -- legal suits, legislative lobbying, and public protest -- that characterized the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. In the early 1900s, he organized protests against the increasing racial violence that spread form the South into northern cities. Breaking ranks with Booker T. Washington and his policies of accommodation and gradualism, Du Bois called for immediate civil and political rights for African Americans. He founded the NAACP in 1910 and became editor of its monthly magazine, "The Crisis." Du Bois's disillusionment after World War I attracted him to Marxism and led him to question the efficacy of legal and political tactics to end racism. He eventually became a citizen of Ghana. Du Bois was the author of such classic works as "The Souls of Black Folk" (1903) and "Black Reconstruction in America" (1935). Winold Reiss, 1920
110. SIPGPO_090329_0742.JPG: WEB Du Bois (detail)
111. SIPGPO_090329_0755.JPG: Samuel Gompers, 1850-1924 A leader in the Cigarmakers International Union in the 1870s, Samuel Gompers took issue with those who saw unions as vehicles for political influence or the transformation of capitalism; he believed that the labor movement's sole purpose was to improve wages, hours, and working conditions. Adhering to this limited mission, he organized the American Federation of Labor in 1886 and made it the most influential union in America. When he posed for this bust in the last year of his life, he told the sculptor, Moses Dykaar, "I want bread and butter for the working man and an hour to think." Moses Dykaar, 1924
112. SIPGPO_090329_0766.JPG: Jane Addams, 1860-1935 Jane Addams was among the first of the college-educated women of the late nineteenth century to escape the social and cultural constraints limiting professional women to teaching and missionary work. As low wages, long hours, and wretched living conditions became the norm for America's urban industrial workers, many, including Addams, were disturbed by the specter of a permanently oppressed lower class ruled by a privileged elite. Having admired settlement houses (neighborhood social welfare centers) in London, Addams in 1889 established Hull-House in a Chicago slum, the second settlement house in the United States. Within a decade, it offered practical education and a myriad of opportunities to the poor. With the sponsorship of Chicago's wealthy women, Hull-House became the most influential and innovative of the 400 settlement houses in the United States before World War I. Addams later focused on international peace efforts, leading her to become the second woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. George de Forest Brush, 1906
113. SIPGPO_090329_0792.JPG: Jacob Riis, 1849-1914 Perhaps the poverty he endured as an immigrant led Jacob Riis to his life's work as a reformer. In 1877, he joined the staff of the New York Tribune as a police reporter and was drawn to stories involving the disadvantaged. Massive immigration from southern and eastern Europe had a profound effect on American cities such as New York, where poverty and squalor were endemic. Riis voiced his outrage over their misery in his masterpiece, "How the Other Half Lives" (1890). Setting the foundations for modern photojournalism, Riis used technical innovations to photograph the dark interiors of tenements. He formed a close relationship with Theodore Roosevelt, who, as police commissioner and later governor of the [sic] New York, worked with Riis to improve tenement conditions. Unidentified artist, 1900
114. SIPGPO_090329_0818.JPG: Upton Sinclair, 1878-1968 After an early career writing pulp fiction and several failed idealistic novels, Upton Sinclair became a socialist and published "The Jungle" -- one of the most influential novels of its day -- in 1906, the year this photograph was taken. Intending to expose corruption and wretched conditions for workers, Sinclair had spent seven weeks living in Chicago's meatpacking district. But "The Jungle" also revealed the appalling sanitary conditions of the industry. "I aimed at the public's heart," he later recalled, "and by accident I hit it in the stomach." The book, an international sensation, prompted Theodore Roosevelt to invite Sinclair to the White House; the president signed the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Meat Inspection Act shortly afterward. Motivated by his concern for social justice, Sinclair continued to write historical novels and exposes, becoming one of the Progressive Era's best-known muckrakers. This photograph was taken at Sinclair's small farm near Princeton, New Jersey, in 1906, the year he ran for Congress as a socialist. Unidentified photographer, 1906
115. SIPGPO_090329_0830.JPG: John Muir (detail)
116. SIPGPO_090329_0840.JPG: J. Pierpont Morgan Sr. 1837-1913 In the early twentieth century, when business leaders became the focus of national attention, J. Pierpont Morgan was the most powerful and influential of those American financiers. His banking empire had controlling or major interests in key railroads and industries, including US Steel and General Electric. A directive from Morgan could influence the stock market, which happened in the panic of 1907, when he lent his prestige and collateral to help stabilize Wall Street. His gift was for consolidating businesses to make them more efficient and profitable. But Morgan also got along with "trust buster" president Theodore Roosevelt, who sought to regulate concentrations of wealth and power rather than break them up. Morgan must have sat for the original version of this portrait by British artist Frank Holl during his annual spring visit in 1888 to his father, Junius S. Morgan, who lived in England. Adrian Lamb, after an original by Frank Holl, 1966
117. SIPGPO_090329_0847.JPG: J. Pierpont Morgan (detail).
118. SIPGPO_090329_0858.JPG: Henry Ford, 1863-1947 In the 1926 edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica, Henry Ford coined the term "mass production" to characterize the manufacture of the Model T automobile. Ford's efficiency reduced car prices from around $900 in 1908 to $290 in 1927, when the last of 15 million units rolled of the assembly line. Although Ford's mass production doubled industrial workers' pay rates and shortened their work day by two hours, he bitterly opposed labor unions, spied on his employees, and even investigated their personal lives. Ford's anti-Semitism was a major stain on a man who many believed could have been president of the United States. Hans Wollner, 1963 after 1937 original
119. SIPGPO_090329_0865.JPG: Henry Ford
120. SIPGPO_090329_0900.JPG: Benjamin Lay, c 1681-1759 Although Benjamin Lay stood just four feet, seven inches tall, this Quaker reformer raised a forceful voice against slavery. Born in England, Lay arrived in Philadelphia by way of Barbados, where the treatment of salves horrified him. Vocal in his opposition, Lay described those who kept slaves as "proud, lazy, tyrannical, gluttonous, drunken, debauched ... the Scum of the Infernal Pit." In 1737, Lay publicly condemned Quaker slave owners in a book published by Benjamin Franklin. Late in life, Lay saw his views broadly adopted by other Quakers. This print by Henry Dawkins, based on the painting by William Williams on view in gallery E152, came, as physician and statesman Benjamin Rush noted, "to be seen in many houses in Philadelphia." In it, Lay appears in front of the grotto that served as his study, holding a tract by Thomas Tryon advocating healthful living. Henry Dawkins, after William Williams Sr., 1760
121. SIPGPO_090329_0910.JPG: Edward Africanus, 1821-1853 Edward C. Africanus was the pastor of the Macedonia Church in Flushing, New York, part of the greater African Methodist Episcopal Church and allegedly a station on the Underground Railroad. Probably published as a memorial print, this lithograph of Africanus would have been available to his parish shortly after his untimely death. The highly particularized details of hair, clothing, and hands indicate that the print was copied from a daguerreotype. Before the introduction of the first photographic technologies, portraitists typically subordinated wrinkles and skin flaws and downplayed the hands, hair, and clothes to focus on the face; But the print of Africanus, carefully delineating such specifics as the knuckles and veins of the hands, shows a new attitude toward detail in daguerreian-age portraiture. As one magazine noted: "the more minutely we see, the more we see." Tappan & Bradford Lithography Company, 1853
122. SIPGPO_090329_0929.JPG: Bob Hope, 1903-2003: No entertainer enjoyed greater popularity in American life than comedian Bob Hope. Beginning his career in vaudeville, Hope combined a rapid-fire delivery with an encyclopedic memory for jokes to become one of the best ad-libbers in show business. Everyone seems out of whack in Al Hirschfeld's 1975 portrayal, drawn for NBC to celebrate Hope's contributions to the network. But Hope did stretch his chin sideways, leer mischievously out of the corners of his eyes, and arch his eyebrows to ridiculous heights. In addition to keep characterization, Hirschfeld implies a sense of movement, as if those whiplashing lines will soon explode and turn into someone else. The caricature conveys Hope's own lively, unabating joy in performance that ensured his popularity. "I feel better when I come off the stage that I do when I go on," he once admitted. Al Hirschfeld, 1975
123. SIPGPO_090329_0937.JPG: Jule Styne, 1905-1994 Composer Jule Styne, often teamed with lyricist Sammy Cahn, published 1,500 songs and produced endless hits for Tin Pan Alley, Frank Sinatra, and Broadway. His notable shows included "Bells are Ringing" (1957), "Gypsy" (1959), and "Funny Girl" (1962). Al Hirschfeld's drawing of Styne accompanied John Corry's 1977 Broadway column in the New York Times. At the time, Styne was performing his own songs at the Rainbow Grill. He admitted enjoying the "ego trip" of his two shows a night: "You write a show and then you lose it," he explained. "It belongs to the guy conducting in the pit." Al Hirschfeld drew Styne's arms and hands with his trademarked abbreviated line, but other passages, including the spiraling dots of the cigarette ash, the curl of stray hairs, and the elegantly complex hatching of the glasses and shirtfront, reveal the artist's remarkable versatility. Al Hirschfeld, 1977
124. SIPGPO_090329_0945.JPG: Elie Wiesel
125. SIPGPO_090329_0953.JPG: Elie Wiesel, born 1928 Elie Wiesel's moving testimony, both written and oral, confirmed the horrors of the Holocaust for millions. He was fifteen when he and his family were deported by the Nazis to Auschwitz. He and two of his three sisters survived. After the war, he lived in France and began to write about his experiences in a series of books, beginning with "Night" (1958). He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1986, and since 1976 he has been the Andrew W. Mellon Professor in the Humanities at Boston University. Miriam Baker's original bust was commissioned in 2001 for the Holocaust Library at Chapman University in Orange, California. Miriam Baker, 2007 cast from 2001 original
126. SIPGPO_090329_0960.JPG: Will Barnet, born 1911, "Self-Portrait with Crow": In his self-portrait, we see artist Will Barnet at a window in his Long Island studio, which looks out at Gardiner's Bay, near East Hampton. During his long career as a painter, printmaker, and teacher, Barnet developed a strong personal style that emphasizes spare outlines and muted colors. His companion here is the crow who was a neighbor's pet and at times a visitor to Barnet's studio. The crow's pose mimics the artist's silhouette and gaze. Crows also appear in Barnet's other paintings of the late 1970s and early 1980s, around the time of the self-portrait. Some have mythical themes and are titled "Circe", "Hera," "Persephone," and "The Three Muses", and in these works, birds contribute a mood of almost mysterious stillness. Self-portrait, 1980
127. SIPGPO_090329_0971.JPG: Cormac McCarthy, born 1933 The early work of contemporary novelist Cormac McCarthy, including "Suttree" (1979) and "Blood Meridian" (1985), was often violent and macabre. After moving from Tennessee to Texas, McCarthy began to explore the classic western theme of the individual on the frontier; his "Border Trilogy" (1992-98) masterfully mixed the old and the new West. Now living near Santa Fe, McCarthy is writing what has been called post-apocalyptic fiction; "The Road" (2006) won the Pulitzer Prize for its depiction of life after a secular apocalypse. McCarthy was the only writer in residence as a fellow at the Santa Fe Institute when British photorealist painter Andrew Tift met and photographed him there in 2003. (Tift created this painting from his photographs.) McCarthy, who is known for being reclusive, has said that talking with the scientists at the research institute "helps him to think." Andrew Tift, 2004
128. SIPGPO_090329_0981.JPG: Murray Gell-Mann, born 1929 A salient figure in the study of atomic particles, Murray Gell-Mann's concept of the "eightfold way" with regard to particle coherence and predictability has been a vital tool in enlarging knowledge of nuclear particles. For this work on the theory of elementary particles, he received the Nobel Prize in 1969, and his 1994 book, "The Quark and the Jaguar", made these theories accessible to the general reader. Gell-Mann is currently the Robert Andrews Milliken Professor Emeritus at the California Institute of Technology. Painter Andrew Tift met and photographed Gell-Mann in 2003 at the Santa Fe Institute, where Gell-Mann is also a distinguished fellow and trustee. (Tift created this painting from the photographs.) Tift loved Gell-Mann's face: "He really had the 'Mad Professor' look, a bit like Einstein, a wonderful face that I knew I had to capture." Andrew Tift, 2004
129. SIPGPO_090329_1004.JPG: Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, 1746-1825 Prominent South Carolina political and military leaders, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and Thomas Pinckney -- both of whom had participated in the 1779 siege of Savannah -- were sought out by John Trumbull in 1791 for a contemporary history painting depicted that disastrous assault. Trumbull failed to carry through on the idea, but undertook miniatures of the brothers which remained in the family until presented to the National Portrait Gallery. John Trumbull, 1791
130. SIPGPO_090329_1009.JPG: Thomas Pinckney, 1750-1828 Prominent South Carolina political and military leaders, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney and Thomas Pinckney -- both of whom had participated in the 1779 siege of Savannah -- were sought out by John Trumbull in 1791 for a contemporary history painting depicted that disastrous assault. Trumbull failed to carry through on the idea, but undertook miniatures of the brothers which remained in the family until presented to the National Portrait Gallery. John Trumbull, 1791
131. SIPGPO_090329_1026.JPG: Elie Wiesel
132. SIPGPO_090329_1031.JPG: Booker T. Washington, 1856-1915 In the face of racial hatred, segregation, and disenfranchisement following the Civil War, it was unrealistic, Booker T. Washington contended, to expect African Americans to gain entry into America's white-color professions. Instead, he suggested they establish themselves as a skilled and indispensable laboring class. With that accomplished, racial discrimination would gradually disappear. In 1881, Washington put this theory to the test, becoming the director of the newly created Negro Normal School in Tuskegee, Alabama. As the school grew, Washington became viewed as the nation's leading spokesman for African Americans. Yet by the century's end, many critics began to challenge his "get along" philosophy. Richmond Barthe, 1973 cast after 1946 original
133. SIPGPO_090329_1038.JPG: Joseph Smith, 1804-1844 During the 1920s, the religious movement called the Second Great Awakening was particularly powerful in upstate New York, an area known as the "Burned Over District" for the fierceness of its revivals. Amidst this fervid religiosity, young Joseph Smith in 1830 founded what came to be known officially as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, or more informally as the Mormons, after a book he said he translated, the Book of Mormon. Smith urged his followers to gather into communities that by their size and cohesiveness threatened other citizens, which led to antagonism and ultimately forced evictions. In 1839, the settled in Commerce, Illinois, which they renamed Nauvoo. After five years, opposition to the Mormon presence grew, as did challenges to Smith's leadership from political opponents and Mormon dissenters. After he closed down an opposition newspaper, he was imprisoned, where he was attacked by a mob and murdered. Adrian Lamb, 1971
134. SIPGPO_090329_1049.JPG: Brigham Young, 1801-1877 Brigham Young converted to Mormonism in 1832, and gradually rose in the leadership structure until he became the head of the "Twelve Apostles" under Joseph Smith. After Smith's murder by an anti-Mormon mob in 1844, Young assumed leadership of the larger portion of the church. In 1847, he led the Mormons from Nebraska to the Great Basin, where he founded Salt Lake City as the new church headquarters. He oversaw the migration of tens of thousands of Mormon converts to the West and the founding of hundreds of settlements. The Mormon majority elected Young as governor, but he was soon replaced by an appointed territorial governor. Political conflicts and challenges to the Mormons' separatist communal and theocratic venture led the United States to dispatch troops to Utah in 1857 and assert federal authority. Young was notorious for his many wives, a practice taught as a religious principle by his predecessor, Joseph Smith. Augustin Francois Lemaitre, 1855
135. SIPGPO_090329_1061.JPG: John Greenleaf Whittier, 1807-1892 The son of a Quaker farmer, John Greenleaf Whittier was a poetic prodigy. In 1826, one of his poems was noticed by the antislavery journalist William Lloyd Garrison, creating a lifelong bond between the two men. Garrison supported Whittier's career as a newspaper editor, and his polemics converted Whittier to abolitionism. Dedicating himself to the cause, Whittier worked tirelessly as an antislavery speaker and writer, and was one of the founders of the Republican Party. Whittier was ostracized for his stands: he was mobbed while speaking, and the offices of his newspaper, the Pennsylvania Freeman, were burned to the ground. His early verse was bucolic, but later he put his poetry into the service of abolitionism, collecting his antislavery poems in "Voices of Freedom" (1846). His reputation now rests on his poetic engagement with the issue of slavery. Robert Peckham, 1833
136. SIPGPO_090329_1071.JPG: William Gilmore Simms, 1806-1870 Novelist and poet William Gilmore Simms was a founder of a distinctly southern literary perspective, one that is influential in history and literature to this day. Simms spent his life writing, turning out a series of colorful novels as well as a substantial body of verse. He invested his fiction with local color and details of southern history, especially from the Revolutionary War period. Like Washington Irving, he adapted the style of Sir Walter Scott's historical novels to American narratives. Simms' writings were a conscious defense of southern civilization (including slavery) as humane, patriotic, and chivalric, especially in contrast to the cold capitalism of the North. This contrast, minus the defense of slavery, remains a staple of southern writing. Unidentified artist, not dated
137. SIPGPO_090329_1082.JPG: William Lloyd Garrison, 1805-1879: Single-handedly, William Lloyd Garrison transformed the antislavery movement from a discussion about gradually ending slavery into a moral crusade demanding "immediate and complete emancipation." A printer and editor, Garrison experienced his near-religious conversion to abolitionism around 1828 and founded the American Anti-Slavery Society in 1833. At first, he was a lone, fierce, and unpopular voice; at one point, he was almost lynched in his hometown of Boston. But Garrison refused to back down: "I will not retreat a single inch -- and I will be heard!" he thundered. His attack on slavery grew so fierce that he condemned the Constitution as a corrupt document for permitting it. Garrison's extremism was not shared by all, yet he and his growing number of followers forced the North to the previously radical proposition that slavery was both immoral and antithetical to the country's founding principles. Nathaniel Jocelyn, 1833
138. SIPGPO_090329_1086.JPG: William Lloyd Garrison
139. SIPGPO_090329_1123.JPG: Wendell Phillips, 1811-1884 Wendell Phillips's fiery speeches galvanized the faithful and converted the wavering to the cause of erasing slavery from American society. A Boston lawyer, Phillips shot to attention as an orator with his fervent 1837 attack on the southern "slaveocracy" after a pro-slavery mob murdered crusading newspaperman Elijah Lovejoy. Phillips was a disciple of William Lloyd Garrison, and like his mentor he came to the radical position that slavery had so infected America that the Constitution itself was tainted. After the Civil War, Phillips continued as a social reformer and was one of the first leaders of the American labor movement. Martin Milmore, 1869
140. SIPGPO_090329_1133.JPG: Elizabeth Cady Stanton, 1815-1902 Elizabeth Cady Stanton was a feminist from the start, refusing to include "obey" in her marriage vows to her husband; and when she spoke of God, she used the female pronoun. Stanton helped organize the Seneca Falls Convention of 1848, which was the founding moment of the American women's rights movement, and she was the longtime president of the National Woman Suffrage Association. Although Stanton's goal was to give women political power through the ballot, she also spearheaded other feminist goals, such as liberalizing divorce laws and reforming child-rearing methods. But unlike other early feminists, she always insisted on the primacy of women's right to vote over other reform objectives, including abolition. She wrote, "Our 'pathway' is straight to the ballot box with no variableness nor shadow of turning." Anna Elizabeth Klumpke, 1889
141. SIPGPO_090329_1146.JPG: Margaret Fuller, 1810-1850 Drowned in a shipwreck, Margaret Fuller is the tragic heroine of the Transcendentalist movement -- an idealistic American literary and philosophical movement that stressed the unity of all creation -- and the first major woman intellectual in American history. Eccentric, beguiling, and at times maddeningly erratic, Fuller had an electric impact on her mostly male colleagues, not least because she was a talented editor and writer on contemporary culture. She edited the Transcendentalist journal The Dial with Ralph Waldo Emerson and George Ripley and became a critic for Horace Greeley's New York Tribune. In 1839 she began a conversation group among Boston's women that led to the treatise Woman in the Nineteenth Century (1845). While traveling in Europe, where she assisted in the cause of Italian nationalism, she married an Italian marchese. She and her family died on their return voyage to the United States. Thomas Hicks, 1848 Lent by Constance Fuller Threinen
142. SIPGPO_090329_1156.JPG: Lucretia Mott, 1793-1880: Lucretia Mott was of the liberal wing of the Society of Friends (Quakers), and she received an early schooling in debate and oratory by traveling with her husband to Quaker meetings throughout the country. The Quakers were a major force in antislavery agitation, and Mott naturally gravitated to the issue, helping to found Philadelphia's Female Anti-Slavery Society. Mott held that women had a special position in the reform of society, and she soon began to consider women's rights as essential in furthering the reform platform. With Elizabeth Cady Stanton, she organized the Seneca Falls, New York, convention in 1848 that launched the women's civil rights movement in the United States. As she wrote: "Let woman then go on-not asking favors, but claiming as a right the removal of all hindrances to her elevation in the scale of being." Joseph Kyle, 1842
143. SIPGPO_090329_1167.JPG: Harriet Tubman, c 1820-1913 Named Araminta Ross and born a slave, Harriet Tubman rebelled against her servitude from her earliest years, running away as early as age seven. At fifteen, she defied an overseer and was nearly killed when he gave her "a stunning blow to the head." Barely recovering, she regained her health, cultivated her toughness, and nurtured her anger. In 1844, she married a freedman, John Tubman, and in 1849 she escaped to Philadelphia, discarding her slave name for her mother's name, Harriet. After her husband refused to join her, Tubman became the lead conductor on the Underground Railroad, guiding escaping slaves to freedom. She made nineteen recorded trips out of the South and was reputed never to have lost a soul. Tubman was active throughout the abolitionist movement and conspired with John Brown about raiding the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, although she did not participate. H. Seymour Squyer, 1885
144. SIPGPO_090329_1177.JPG: Harriet Beecher Stowe, 1811-1896, Lyman Beecher, 1775-1863, Henry Ward Beecher, 1813-1887: Lyman Beecher, a Presbyterian clergyman, was the patriarch of one of the most talented and influential families in American history. In the 1820s, he tapped America's fervor for a religion that would serve individuals and society alike. A powerful preacher who grounded his faith in a belief in the individual will, Lyman conducted a continuous, passionate revival, demanding that his congregants redouble their efforts at personal reform and good works. His son Henry did not share his father's fierceness but became a national figure for his preaching style. In addition to the novelist Harriet Beecher Stowe, the Beecher family also included Catherine (1800-1878), an important domestic reformer, and the ministers Charles (1815-1900), Edward (1803-1895), and Thomas (1824-1900). Mathew Brady Studio, c 1861
145. SIPGPO_090329_1187.JPG: Sojourner Truth, c 1797-1883 In 1843 ex-slave Isabella Van Wagener obeyed God's personal command to her, changed her name to Sojourner Truth, and became an itinerant preacher. Quickly becoming a major attraction on the revival circuit for the power and ingenuity of her prophetic speeches, she was drawn into abolitionism and entranced antislavery audiences with her personal testimony. Like Frederick Douglass, Truth was a charismatic figure because she was not a victim but a leader. She was also a powerful example of African American womanhood. As she concluded in a compelling oration on women's rights, "I could work as much . . . and bear the lash as well [as a man] -- and aren't I a woman?" Unidentified artist, 1864
146. SIPGPO_090329_1204.JPG: Stephen F. Austin, 1793-1836: In 1822, Stephen F. Austin led a group of Anglo-American emigrants to settle a site in Texas on the Gulf of Mexico. He gained the cooperation and trust of the newly formed Mexican state, which saw Austin's colony as a way to settle and improve its lands. For ten years Austin led the colony and grew to believe that Mexico, not the United States, should control Texas. However, his hand was forced when the Mexican government, fearing the American colonists' independence, began to harass them. Austin was arrested in 1835 for allegedly plotting to annex Texas from Mexico. Released, he joined the subsequent revolt as commander of the army of Texas. After the declaration of the Republic of Texas (1836), Austin was defeated as its first president by Sam Houston, the war's military hero. Unidentified artist, c 1840
147. SIPGPO_090329_1220.JPG: Daniel Boone, 1734-1820 When historian Frederick Jackson Turner formulated his "Frontier Thesis" to explain American history and character, he began the progress of settlement with the "Lone Scout," a harbinger of the civilization to follow. In this image, Turner likely had Daniel Boone in mind. Boone spent his life pushing westward, always dissatisfied with where he was and always moving on; he ended up in Kentucky, opening that area for white settlement. One reason Boone kept moving was that when the government caught up with him on the trail he had blazed, it usually voided his land claims and expelled him. Although the reality of Boone's career did not embody the romantic legends that others applied to it, the persistence of Boone as a symbol indicates how strongly the idea of the lone frontiersman has shaped American consciousness and history. Chester Harding, 1820 and 1860
148. SIPGPO_090329_1226.JPG: Daniel Boone (detail)
149. SIPGPO_090329_1249.JPG: Samuel Houston, 1793-1863 After fighting Indians with Andrew Jackson, Sam Houston became governor and then a congressman in Tennessee until a murky marital scandal killed his political career in 1829. By 1835 he was training a small army in Texas as American colonists there resisted Mexican restrictions on them. When war broke out, Houston led his army to victory and was elected first president of the Republic of Texas. Although he argued for independence, in 1846 he agreed to Texas's annexation by the United States. Houston served Texas as a senator and governor, but resigned the governorship when Texas moved to secede from the Union in 1861. Henry Dexter, 1969 cast after 1860 original
150. SIPGPO_090329_1256.JPG: Thomas Hart Benton, 1782-1858 Thomas Hart Benton was a major political figure in the antebellum period, serving as a Democratic senator from Missouri for thirty years. Politically, Benton helped implement "manifest destiny" with his wholehearted support of national expansion. He wrote in 1818: "In a few years the Rocky Mountains will be passed and the 'children of Adam' will have . . . [marched] west to . . . the Pacific." To fulfill this vision of America as a new Eden, Benton promoted homesteading, the western railroad, the Pony Express, annexation, and other measures. But his career foundered on the issue of slavery. A believer in the Union and an opponent of slavery, he voted against the Compromise of 1850, which deferred conflict on the slavery issue. Benton's intransigence outraged the Missouri legislature, and they replaced him with a pro-slavery Whig in 1850. Ferdinand Thomas Lee Boyle, c 1861
151. SIPGPO_090329_1269.JPG: Thomas Hart Benton (detail)
152. SIPGPO_090329_1278.JPG: Cornelius Vanderbilt, 1794-1877 "The Commodore," as he was dubbed for his domination of waterborne transportation, Cornelius Vanderbilt created one of the first great fortunes-and business dynasties-in American history. He began in the rough-and-tumble world of the New York port and by 1829 had parlayed several small shipping ventures into a stake in the lucrative Hudson River trade. He branched out to dominate the New England trade and seaborne travel to San Francisco. He next moved into railroads, eventually gaining control of the industry from New York to western Canada. Vanderbilt was a ruthless monopolist, driving out his competitors through rate wars, political muscle, and hostile takeovers. But in organizing America's fragmented transportation system, he facilitated national expansion and created the infrastructure on which an expanding economy could build. Nathaniel Jocelyn, 1846
153. SIPGPO_090329_1291.JPG: John C. Fremont, 1813-1890 In 1846, the newspaperman John L. O'Sullivan coined the phrase "manifest destiny" to describe America's mission to "overspread the continent allotted [to us] by Providence." A member of the US Topographical Corps, the "Great Pathfinder" John C. Fremont made that destiny a reality with his many explorations of western routes to the Pacific. In 1846-47, Fremont fought to capture California from Mexico, but his insubordination led to his dismissal from service, an act that only added to his appeal as spokesman for western Americans. Personally and politically well-connected (he was the son-in-law of powerful Missouri senator Thomas Hart Benton), Fremont was a senator from California and then ran for president in 1856 as the Republican Party's first candidate. He was an unsuccessful Civil War general, losing Abraham Lincoln's confidence when he issued a premature announcement emancipating Missouri's slaves. William Smith Jewett, not dated
154. SIPGPO_090329_1302.JPG: William Clark, 1770-1838: This portrait shows William Clark stoutly respectable as the governor of the Missouri Territory, concerned with organizing the government, normalizing relations with Indian tribes, and settling the vast area of the trans-Mississippi West. But Clark had cut a far different figure when he first entered the territory in 1804 as the co-leader, with Meriwether Lewis, of the government expedition that bore their names. Then, Clark was only briefly removed from an army career spent fighting Indians in the border wars that followed the end of the American Revolution. Clark provided the expedition with much-needed practical savvy about the logistical and political obstacles it faced as it trekked northwest to the Continental Divide and then to the Pacific Ocean. The speed with which Clark went from scout to governor embodied the speed with which the United States explored and settled western lands. George Catlin, 1832
155. SIPGPO_090329_1310.JPG: William Clark (detail)
156. SIPGPO_090329_1323.JPG: Davy Crockett, 1786-1836 Unlike his solitary predecessor Daniel Boone, Davy Crockett created the image of the frontiersman as a jocular, color "type" who lived tall tales, whisky, and cutting a caper. Crockett was a bad farmer and kicked around the Southeast, serving in the military and minor governmental offices. On a whim, he ran for Congress from Tennessee, serving two terms (1827-31, 1833-35). To capitalize on his political fame, he authored an autobiography containing a motto, "Be always sure you're right -- then go ahead," that had been the credo of the frontiersman, in reality and myth, to the present day. After Congress, Crockett created a road show in which he presented himself to civilized eastern audiences as the wild and woolly backwoodsman, "half man, half alligator." Still restless, however, Crockett joined the fight for Texas independence and was killed at the Alamo. Chester Harding, 1834
157. SIPGPO_090329_1327.JPG: Davy Crockett (detail)
158. SIPGPO_090329_1338.JPG: Frederick Douglass, 1817-1895 Frederick Douglass became the first nationally known African American in U.S. history by turning his life into a testimony on the evils of slavery and the redemptive power of freedom. He had escaped from slavery in 1838 and subsequently became a powerful witness for abolitionism, speaking, writing, and organizing on behalf of the movement; he also founded a newspaper, the North Star. Douglass's charisma derived from his ability to present himself as the author of his own destiny at a time when white America could barely conceive of the black man as a thinking and feeling human being. The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass is not only gripping nonfiction account of one man's struggle for freedom; it is also one of the greatest American autobiographies. This powerful portrait shows Douglass as he grew in prominence during the 1840s. Unidentified artist, c 1844
159. SIPGPO_090329_1351.JPG: Cyrus McCormick, 1809-1884 Territorial expansion generated a spirit of technological adventure and a search for new methods to handle the unique conditions of American life. Cyrus McCormick, a farmer in Virginia's Shenandoah Valley, succeeded where his father had failed by constructing the first practical reaping machine. This reaper was a first step in the mechanization of American agriculture, allowing the efficient cultivation of large tracts of farmland by small numbers of farmers. This industrialization of the land allowed the United States to boost agricultural production to unprecedented levels and to feed growing cities and industrial towns. McCormick's design was pirated by competitors, but he overcame his rivals by founding his own factory outside Chicago in 1847. There, he contributed to the pace of industrial growth by using standardized parts and assembly-line production-methods that had been pioneered by Samuel Colt and others. Charles Loring Elliott, not dated
160. SIPGPO_090329_1362.JPG: Men of Progress: In 1857, the inventor of a coal-burning stove, Jordan Mott, commissioned Christian Schussele to paint a group portrait of eighteen American scientists and inventors who "had altered the course of contemporary civilization." As with Schussele's celebration of American letters, Washington Irving . . . at Sunnyside, the group portrait did not mark an actual occasion but was designed to honor the achievements of American industry. The artist sketched study portraits of each of his subjects before putting them all into his final, formal composition. Men of Progress is a remarkable document of the growth of the American economy by the 1850s as it celebrates the inventions and processes of manufacturing pioneered by men such as Cyrus McCormick, Charles Goodyear, Samuel Colt, Samuel Morse, Elias Howe, and fourteen others. Left to right: (1) William Thomas Green Morton, 9 Aug 1819 - 15 Jul 1868 (2) James Bogardus, 14 Mar 1800 - 13 Apr 1874 (3) Samuel Colt, 19 Jul 1814 - 10 Jan 1862 (4) Cyrus Hall McCormick, 15 Feb 1809 - 13 May 1884 (5) Joseph Saxton, 22 Mar 1799 - 26 Oct 1873 (6) Charles Goodyear, 29 Dec 1800 - 1 Jul 1860 (7) Peter Cooper, 1791 - 1883 (8) Jordan Lawrence Mott, 12 Oct 1799 - 1866 (9) Joseph Henry, 17 Dec 1797 - 13 May 1878 (10) Eliphalet Nott, 25 Jun 1773 - 29 Jan 1866 (11) John Ericsson, 31 Jul 1803 - 8 Mar 1889 (12) Frederick Ellsworth Sickels, 20 Sep 1819 - 8 Mar 1895 (13) Samuel Finley Breese Morse, 27 Apr 1791 - 2 Apr 1872 (14) Henry Burden, 22 Apr 1791 - 19 Jan 1871 (15) Richard March Hoe, 19 Jul 1815 - 13 Sep 1884 (16) Erastus Brigham Bigelow, 2 Apr 1814 - 6 Dec 1879 (17) Isaiah Jennings, 1792 - 1862 (18) Thomas Blanchard, 24 Jun 1788 - 16 Apr 1864 (19) Elias Howe, 9 Jul 1819 - 3 Oct 1867 Christian Schussele, 1862
161. SIPGPO_090329_1375.JPG: Men of Progress (detail): Left to right: (1) William Thomas Green Morton, 9 Aug 1819 - 15 Jul 1868 (2) James Bogardus, 14 Mar 1800 - 13 Apr 1874 (3) Samuel Colt, 19 Jul 1814 - 10 Jan 1862 (4) Cyrus Hall McCormick, 15 Feb 1809 - 13 May 1884 (5) Joseph Saxton, 22 Mar 1799 - 26 Oct 1873
162. SIPGPO_090329_1387.JPG: Men of Progress (detail): Left to right: (6) Charles Goodyear, 29 Dec 1800 - 1 Jul 1860 (7) Peter Cooper, 1791 - 1883 (8) Jordan Lawrence Mott, 12 Oct 1799 - 1866 (9) Joseph Henry, 17 Dec 1797 - 13 May 1878
163. SIPGPO_090329_1393.JPG: Men of Progress (detail): Left to right: (6) Charles Goodyear, 29 Dec 1800 - 1 Jul 1860 (7) Peter Cooper, 1791 - 1883 (8) Jordan Lawrence Mott, 12 Oct 1799 - 1866 (9) Joseph Henry, 17 Dec 1797 - 13 May 1878 (10) Eliphalet Nott, 25 Jun 1773 - 29 Jan 1866 (11) John Ericsson, 31 Jul 1803 - 8 Mar 1889 (12) Frederick Ellsworth Sickels, 20 Sep 1819 - 8 Mar 1895 (13) Samuel Finley Breese Morse, 27 Apr 1791 - 2 Apr 1872
164. SIPGPO_090329_1400.JPG: Men of Progress (detail): Left to right: (10) Eliphalet Nott, 25 Jun 1773 - 29 Jan 1866 (11) John Ericsson, 31 Jul 1803 - 8 Mar 1889 (12) Frederick Ellsworth Sickels, 20 Sep 1819 - 8 Mar 1895 (13) Samuel Finley Breese Morse, 27 Apr 1791 - 2 Apr 1872 (14) Henry Burden, 22 Apr 1791 - 19 Jan 1871 (15) Richard March Hoe, 19 Jul 1815 - 13 Sep 1884
165. SIPGPO_090329_1412.JPG: Automatic telegraph receiver patented by Samuel F. B. Morse, 1837
166. SIPGPO_090329_1430.JPG: Samuel F. B. Morse, 1791-1872: Inventor of the telegraph Samuel Morse was first a portraitist active in intellectual circles, who helped found the National Academy of Design (1826) in order to elevate and support the arts. But around 1832 he became fascinated with the idea of sending messages via electric wire. With no scientific or mechanical training, Morse devised an elegant machine that sent coded messages by opening and closing an electrical circuit. While the government neglected the telegraph, private businesses seized on the new invention as a great leap forward in communications technology. At a time when railways and water transportation were binding the country together, Morse did the same with a network of instantaneous communication. Speed has always characterized America, and Morse's breakthrough was the gigantic first step in creating ever-faster means of communicating. Self-portrait, 1812
167. SIPGPO_090329_1436.JPG: Samuel F. B. Morse (detail).
168. SIPGPO_090329_1442.JPG: Thomas A. Edison, 1847-1931 Painted during Thomas Alva Edison's visit to Paris for the Universal Exposition of 1889, Abraham A. Anderson's portrait depicts the wealthy entrepreneur at the height of his career. World-renowned for his inventions-including the phonograph, incandescent lamp, and movie camera-Edison, who received numerous honors in Europe, presided over one of the most popular exhibitions at the exposition. Particularly intriguing to audiences was Edison's phonograph, the recent improvement of which Anderson chose to picture. Although Edison patented the device in 1877, earning himself the title of the "Wizard of Menlo Park," eleven years passed before he achieved sufficient clarity of sound to make it commercially viable. Using the word "specie" as a test, Edison labored until it could be properly transmitted. "When that was done," Edison reported, "I knew everything else could be done, which was a fact." Abraham Archibald Anderson, 1890
169. SIPGPO_090329_1474.JPG: Isaac Singer, 1811-1875 An actor turned inventor, Isaac Singer democratized clothing production with the sewing machine he patented in 1851. Although not the first (Elias Howe introduced a design in 1846), Singer's machine was more reliable and capable of continuous stitching. Hailed two years after its appearance as "one of the most efficient labor-saving devices ever introduced to public notice," Singer's machine could sew 900 stitches per minute, more than twenty times as many as a skilled seamstress. Aiming the product at women and putting it within reach of a wide range of buyers, Singer and his business partner Edward Clark established an international commercial empire. Singer commissioned this portrait while living in Paris, after scandals about his private life forced him to relocate to Europe. American artist Edward Harrison May painted him in clothing that reflects his wealth and trademark extravagance. Edward Harrison May, 1869
170. SIPGPO_090329_1479.JPG: Alexander Graham Bell, 1847-1922 Scottish-born Alexander Graham Bell studied speech from an early age. While trying to improve the telegraph, Bell discovered that the voice could be transformed into electric current and transmitted over a wire. He exhibited his telephone at the 1876 Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia, where the startled emperor of Brazil exclaimed, "I hear, I hear!" Bell's invention revolutionized communication, leading to the establishment of the Bell Telephone Company. Upon learning of the inventor's death, his friend and competitor Thomas Edison observed: "[he] brought the human family in closer touch." Moses Wainer Dykaar, 1922
171. SIPGPO_090329_1485.JPG: Alexander Graham Bell
172. SIPGPO_090329_1494.JPG: William Cullen Bryant, 1794-1878 William Cullen Bryant brought the Romantic movement into American literature with his 1817 poem "Thanatopsis." His nature poems include "To a Waterfowl," which the English poet Matthew Arnold called "the most perfect brief poem in the language." But in early America, poetry was no way to make a living, and Bryant's main career was as a crusading newspaper editor at the New York Evening Post. Bryant's abhorrence of slavery made him a fervent Republican and a devout supporter of Lincoln, although he wished that Lincoln was more radical on abolition. His last literary work was a translation of Homer's Iliad and Odyssey. Henry Kirke Brown, 1846
173. SIPGPO_090329_1538.JPG: Osceola, c 1804-1838 The Seminole Indians of the Southeast were directly affected by Andrew Jackson's policy of Indian removal, and although a portion of his tribe's leadership gave in to the federal government, Osceola led the resistance. Unlike Black Hawk, who fought the Americans in the West, Osceola did not take on the U.S. military in open battle, but conducted a campaign of guerrilla warfare, harassing federal authorities from the Seminole base in the Everglades. Osceola was captured after the Americans violated a flag of truce. He died in prison shortly thereafter, but the Seminole, famously, never surrendered to the United States. George Catlin, 1838
174. SIPGPO_090329_1547.JPG: Walt Whitman, 1819-1892 Walt Whitman's "Leaves of Grass" -- which first appeared in 1855 and was republished in a revised and expanded form on five subsequent occasions -- transformed the creative possibilities of poetry. By embracing "free verse" and abandoning the conventional style, diction, and subject matter that characterized the work of his peers, Whitman liberated this literary tradition. "The attitude of great poets is to cheer up slaves and horrify despots," he proclaimed boldly. A champion of the common man and American democracy, Whitman criticized this late portrait by John White Alexander as too genteel -- too "Bostonese," in his own words. Although his writings attracted controversy dating back to his career as a journalist in Brooklyn, Whitman remained dedicated to his art. During the Civil War, he worked as a "wound dresser" in this building at a time when it served as an army hospital. John White Alexander, 1889
175. SIPGPO_090329_1553.JPG: Walt Whitman (detail)
176. SIPGPO_090329_1569.JPG: Washington Irving, 1783-1859 Trained as a lawyer, Washington Irving found the law tedious and drifted into writing, publishing the first of his comic tales, A History of New York, in 1809. He went on to become a popular and critical success in both America and England with such tales as "Rip Van Winkle" and "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow." Irving modeled his writing on a romanticized view of history as embodied in the novels of Sir Walter Scott. His originality came from basing that style in distinctly American material, especially his wry delineation of well-known American "types." Robert Ball Hughes, c 1836
177. SIPGPO_090329_1582.JPG: Ira Aldridge, 1805-1867 The career of Ira Aldridge illustrates the costs that racism inflicted on African Americans and on America itself. Aldridge was one of the great actors of his age-but he was black. Unable to work in America, he moved to England in the 1820s and lived abroad until his death. Aldridge's most famous role was Othello, in which he is shown here, a part that he invested with the poignancy of his own experience; a Russian critic wrote in 1858 that "he was Othello himself, as created by Shakespeare." Yet Aldridge was not bound by color in his acting. He played most of Shakespeare's main characters, especially the tragic heroes. Aldridge's career foreshadows the fate of many African American artists, such as dancer Josephine Baker or jazz musician Dexter Gordon, who chose to go to Europe to find wide acclaim. Henry Perronet Briggs, c 1830
178. SIPGPO_090329_1597.JPG: H. H. Richardson, 1836-1886 Trained in Paris at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Henry Hobson Richardson became America's leading architect in the late 1800s. He designed a wide range of structures, including churches, railroad stations, department stores, courthouses, libraries, and private homes. Best known today for Trinity Church in Boston, Massachusetts, Richardson fused the Romanesque style of medieval France with the picturesque style popular in England and the United States. In this portrait, British artist Hubert von Herkomer found his sitter's girth, accentuated by the rounded pitcher in the background, an ideal metaphor for his character. During the sittings, Herkomer noted that Richardson was "as solid in his friendship as in his figure. Big-bodies, big-hearted, large-minded, full-brained, loving as he is pugnacious." An admirer of Herkomer's work, Richardson created plans for the artist's country house as payment for the likeness. Hubert von Herkomer, 1886
179. SIPGPO_090404_0002.JPG: Louisa May Alcott, 1832-1888 Louisa May Alcott began to write professionally in her teens when her father, utopian theorist Bronson Alcott, left the family in dire financial straits. She published her first book, Flower Fables, in 1854. After serving as a nurse during the Civil War, she produced the memoir Hospital Sketches in 1863. Asked by her publisher to write a book for girls, Alcott drew upon her own family experiences to write Little Women (1868). This heartwarming novel, chronicling the lives of the four March sisters-Meg, Jo, Beth, and Amy-was a success at its publication and remains an American literary classic. Frank Edwin Elwell, 1967 cast after 1891 plaster
180. SIPGPO_090404_0016.JPG: Mary Baker Eddy, 1821-1900 Born Bow, New Hampshire A spontaneous recovery from a serious spinal injury convinced Mary Baker Eddy that illness was not real, and she built a new Christian theology on the idea that all reality was spiritual and all physical matter was an illusion. The cure for evil, especially sickness and disease, she wrote, would come about by spiritual means. By the 1890s Eddy had centralized her new religion of Christian Science in Boston. A national newspaper, the Christian Science Monitor, was established in 1908. Membership grew from almost 9,000 in 1890 to about 270,000 in 1936, and spread to Europe and Asia. Luella Varney Serrao, 1889
181. SIPGPO_090404_0028.JPG: William Dean Howells, 1837-1920 "Let fiction cease to lie about life; let it portray men and women as they are," wrote William Dean Howells in 1887, in celebrating the work of his close friend Mark Twain. A tireless writer who shared Twain's concern for social justice, Howells led an often-controversial campaign for realism in literature. In such novels as The Rise of Silas Lapham, which chronicled the progress of a self-made man among Boston's old social elite, he revealed his interest in "common American lives." As the editor of the prestigious Atlantic Monthly and later Harper's, Howells was not only the most widely read author in America, but he was also influential in promoting the careers of many emerging literary talents. Augustus Saint-Gaudens's likeness depicts Howells reading to his daughter Mildred. Augustus Saint-Gaudens, 1898
182. SIPGPO_090404_0040.JPG: Nettie Fowler McCormick, 1835-1923: Raised in a strongly Christian fundamentalist environment, Nettie Fowler showed her commitment to philanthropy and moral duty after her marriage to industrialist Cyrus McCormick, inventor of the mechanical reaper. When Cyrus died, Nettie McCormick became an important business influence. She helped lead the McCormick Harvesting Company through the travails of the wheat market collapse in 1896 and into lasting significance as the company became known as International Harvester. She is perhaps best known as a philanthropist; she contributed to more than forty schools and colleges throughout the country, particularly to the McCormick Theological Seminary in Chicago. Erastus Dow Palmer, 1866
183. SIPGPO_090404_0047.JPG: Henry Baldwin Hyde, 1834-1899 As a young insurance cashier, Henry Baldwin Hyde perceived many shortcomings in his industry. He saw the need to promote life insurance as a moral good -- as the "protector of widows and orphans" -- to counter attacks by the clergy that it denied faith in divine protection. In 1859 Hyde launched Equitable Life Assurance, gaining the endorsement of such well-known ministers as Henry Ward Beecher. He gave policyholders the benefit of the doubt in disputes, and was the first to offer policies to women. Equitable was soon a leading insurance company and helped make life insurance an essential part of American life. John Quincy Adams Ward, 1901
184. SIPGPO_090404_0055.JPG: Henry Baldwin Hyde (detail)
185. SIPGPO_090404_0069.JPG: Washington Irving and His Literary Friends at Sunnyside: The artists Christian Schussele and Felix Darley created this apocryphal gathering of leading writers at Sunnyside, Washington Irving's Hudson River home, to honor the literary culture created by America's founding generation of writers. By making Irving the center of the image, the artists both glorify his career and at the same time celebrate the national culture. But in doing so, they made the writers too much alike. As a New York critic wrote, "If [Irving] could have caught a glimpse of such a gathering . . . [he] would have dashed out of doors." Nonetheless, the group portrait is an important summing up of an era in which American literature found its voice and created a vigorous national culture that a new generation-Walt Whitman, Mark Twain, Stephen Crane-would later enhance. Left to right (top row): (1) Henry Theodore Tuckerman, 1813 - 1871 (2) Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., 29 Aug 1809 - 7 Oct 1894 (3) Nathaniel Hawthorne, 4 Jul 1804 - May 1864 (4) Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 27 Feb 1807 - 24 Mar 1882 (5) Nathaniel Parker Willis, 20 Jan 1806 - 20 Jan 1867 (6) James Kirke Paulding, 22 Aug 1778 - 6 Apr 1860 (7) William Cullen Bryant, 3 Nov 1794 - 12 Jun 1878 (8) John Pendleton Kennedy, 25 Oct 1795 - 18 Aug 1870 (Front row) (9) William Gillmore Simms, 17 Apr 1806 - 11 Jun 1870 (10) Fitz-Greene Halleck, 8 Jul 1790 - 19 Nov 1867 (11) William Hickling Prescott, 4 May 1796 - 28 Jan 1859 (12) Washington Irving, 3 Apr 1783 - 28 Nov 1859 (13) Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1803 - 1882 (14) James Fenimore Cooper, 15 Sep 1789 - 14 Sep 1851 (15) George Bancroft, 3 Oct 1800 - 17 Jan 1891 Christian Schussele after a design by Felix Darley, 1864
186. SIPGPO_090404_0079.JPG: Washington Irving and His Literary Friends at Sunnyside (detail): Left to right (top row): (1) Henry Theodore Tuckerman, 1813 - 1871 (2) Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., 29 Aug 1809 - 7 Oct 1894 (3) Nathaniel Hawthorne, 4 Jul 1804 - May 1864 (Front row) (9) William Gillmore Simms, 17 Apr 1806 - 11 Jun 1870 (10) Fitz-Greene Halleck, 8 Jul 1790 - 19 Nov 1867
187. SIPGPO_090404_0084.JPG: Washington Irving and His Literary Friends at Sunnyside (detail): Left to right (top row): (4) Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 27 Feb 1807 - 24 Mar 1882 (5) Nathaniel Parker Willis, 20 Jan 1806 - 20 Jan 1867 (Front row) (11) William Hickling Prescott, 4 May 1796 - 28 Jan 1859
188. SIPGPO_090404_0087.JPG: Washington Irving and His Literary Friends at Sunnyside (detail): Left to right (top row): (5) Nathaniel Parker Willis, 20 Jan 1806 - 20 Jan 1867 (6) James Kirke Paulding, 22 Aug 1778 - 6 Apr 1860 (Front row) (11) William Hickling Prescott, 4 May 1796 - 28 Jan 1859 (12) Washington Irving, 3 Apr 1783 - 28 Nov 1859 (13) Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1803 - 1882
189. SIPGPO_090404_0091.JPG: Washington Irving and His Literary Friends at Sunnyside (detail): Left to right (top row): (6) James Kirke Paulding, 22 Aug 1778 - 6 Apr 1860 (7) William Cullen Bryant, 3 Nov 1794 - 12 Jun 1878 (8) John Pendleton Kennedy, 25 Oct 1795 - 18 Aug 1870 (Front row) (12) Washington Irving, 3 Apr 1783 - 28 Nov 1859 (13) Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1803 - 1882 (14) James Fenimore Cooper, 15 Sep 1789 - 14 Sep 1851
190. SIPGPO_090404_0098.JPG: Washington Irving and His Literary Friends at Sunnyside (detail): Left to right (top row): (7) William Cullen Bryant, 3 Nov 1794 - 12 Jun 1878 (8) John Pendleton Kennedy, 25 Oct 1795 - 18 Aug 1870 (Front row) (13) Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1803 - 1882 (14) James Fenimore Cooper, 15 Sep 1789 - 14 Sep 1851 (15) George Bancroft, 3 Oct 1800 - 17 Jan 1891
191. SIPGPO_090404_0102.JPG: Washington Irving and His Literary Friends at Sunnyside (detail): Left to right (top row): (5) Nathaniel Parker Willis, 20 Jan 1806 - 20 Jan 1867 (6) James Kirke Paulding, 22 Aug 1778 - 6 Apr 1860 (7) William Cullen Bryant, 3 Nov 1794 - 12 Jun 1878 (Front row) (11) William Hickling Prescott, 4 May 1796 - 28 Jan 1859 (12) Washington Irving, 3 Apr 1783 - 28 Nov 1859 (13) Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1803 - 1882
192. SIPGPO_090404_0104.JPG: Thomas Edison's tin-foil phonograph: This early phonograph, patented by Thomas Edison in 1878, gave the world the ability to replicate sound. Although an earlier machine by Charles Cross could record sound waves, Edison's invention was the first with the ability to play them back. This model, which Edison presented to the Smithsonian in 1916, used a tinfoil cylinder to capture the sound, a feature that was later replaced with wax.
193. SIPGPO_090404_0113.JPG: Thomas Edison's tin-foil prototype (detail)
194. SIPGPO_090404_0129.JPG: Isaac Singer's patent model for improvements to his sewing machine: This 1854 sewing machine model that Isaac Singer submitted to the Patent Office -- which originally occupied this building -- provided further refinements to the device he patented in 1851. Although Singer did not invent the sewing machine, he improved it dramatically, making it practical for both industrial and domestic use. As an 1853 advertisement for Singer's machine stated: "The sewing machine has, within the last two years, acquired a wide celebrity, and established its character as one of the most efficient labor-saving instruments ever introduced to public notice."
195. SIPGPO_090404_0139.JPG: Belva Ann Lockwood, 1830-1917 Belva Ann Lockwood flatly rejected the gallantry of those who sought to protect women from the more rigorous aspects of life. Denied the right to teach physical education to her female pupils, Lockwood protested until that privilege was granted. Barred later from utilizing a hard-won law degree in many courts, she lobbied for a congressional bill permitting women to argue before the Supreme Court and, on its passage in 1879, became the first woman admitted to practice in that tribunal. In 1884 Lockwood realized that although she could not vote, she could seek public office. By the late summer, before cheering supporters, she became the first woman to formally declare her candidacy for president. In this portrait, Lockwood appears in the robes presented to her in 1908 on receiving an honorary degree from her alma mater, Syracuse University. Nellie Methes Horne, 1913
196. SIPGPO_090404_0144.JPG: Belva Ann Lockwood (detail)
197. SIPGPO_090404_0157.JPG: John Wesley Powell, 1834-1902 John Wesley Powell's work as an explorer, geologist, and anthropologist in the American West helped to shape national policies on a host of issues, including the status of native peoples and the development of public lands. Although he was celebrated for leading the first American exploring expedition through the Grand Canyon in 1869, his greater contribution came from his scientific reports on western lands and the peoples living there, many of which contradicted long-held beliefs. His advocacy of communal or government control of water for irrigation in the West was derided at the time, yet his studies served as the foundation for twentieth-century water-use policies. As director of both the U.S. Geological Survey and the U.S. Bureau of Ethnology, Powell saw science as a vital force in promoting the common good. Edmund Messer, 1889
198. SIPGPO_090404_0163.JPG: John Wesley Powell (detail)
199. SIPGPO_090404_0168.JPG: Sitting Bull, c 1831-1870 As America's frontier expanded across the Missouri River, Sitting Bull united the Lakota tribes of the northern plains against territorial onslaught. Named Tatanka-Iyotanka ("a buffalo bull sitting intractably on its haunches"), he became head chief of the Lakota nation in 1868. War between the Lakota and the U.S. Army broke out after an expedition led by General George Armstrong Custer confirmed that gold had been discovered in the Black Hills, and the subsequent rush overran Lakota land. With Custer's defeat at Little Bighorn in 1876, Sitting Bull escaped with his tribe to Canada. Granted amnesty, he returned to the Black Hills and, after appearing briefly with Buffalo Bill's Wild West Show, spent the last years of his life at the Grand River settlement where he was born. Bailey, Dix, and Mead, 1882
200. SIPGPO_090404_0180.JPG: Chief Joseph, c 1840-1904 Chief Joseph came to embody for many the tragic plight of Native Americans during the second half of the nineteenth century. His resistance to government efforts to move the Nez Perc� people to a reservation drew anger from U.S. authorities, but also prompted widespread sympathy from many Americans. When troops were called in to speed the removal process in 1877, Joseph and 800 of his followers began a strategic retreat, seeking safety first among allied tribes in Montana and then heading toward Canada. Only thirty miles from the border, a command led by General Nelson Miles intercepted this band and forced Joseph to surrender. For the next eight years Joseph was imprisoned at several sites, including Fort Leavenworth in Kansas. It was there that artist Cyrenius Hall created this painting of the dispirited leader. Cyrenius Hall, 1878
201. SIPGPO_090404_0189.JPG: Geronimo, c 1823-1909 Geronimo became an Apache war leader after an 1851 Mexican raid in what is now Arizona killed his mother, wife, and their three children. In the warfare between the United States and the Apache, Geronimo was defeated, captured, and sent to Indian reservations several times. In 1881, he fled to Mexico, brilliantly leading sixty Apache warriors and several hundred Indians from San Carlos to the Sierra Madre. He was persuaded to surrendered but again escaped to Mexico with a band of followers. He did light fighting in the 1880s, but his supporters raided in his name, adding to his fierce reputation. In 1886, he was one of the last Indians to surrender to the United States, his mythical warrior image eclipsing his actual biography. A. Frank Randall, 1887
202. SIPGPO_090404_0201.JPG: Bret Harte, 1836-1902 Through his short stories and essays, Bret Harte presented many Americans with their first taste of the society that the California gold rush had produced. In stories such as "The Luck of Roaring Camp" and "The Outcasts of Poker Flat," Harte brought to life a colorful assortment of gamblers, miners, and other adventurers who, like him, had settled in California. Returning east in 1871, he found himself lionized as the West's signature writer. But Harte never felt any real kinship with the crude world he portrayed, and his later western stories paled in comparison to the crisply narrated tales that made him a celebrity. By 1878 Harte was sailing for Europe, where even his lesser works continued to find an appreciative audience. There he remained for the rest of his life, grinding out hackneyed variations of his original themes and settings. John Pettie, 1884
203. SIPGPO_090404_0209.JPG: Jay Gould, 1836-1892 Often depicted as the stereotypical "robber baron" of the Gilded Age, Jay Gould had a reputation for deceptive trading practices and aggressive business dealings. From his attempt to corner the gold market, leading to the 1869 financial panic known as Black Friday; to his hostile takeover of Western Union, giving him a monopoly of the nation's telegraph system; to his fierce machinations with various railroad lines, Gould earned many enemies. With his daring tactics, the self-made Gould helped revolutionize the nation's transportation and communications infrastructure by pushing tirelessly for its expansion. Unlike other industrialists, who used their fortunes to endow institutions that would outlive them, Gould left his estate entirely to his family. Commissioned to paint Gould's portrait four years after his death, the American artist Eastman Johnson, known for his genre scenes, based his likeness of photographs. Eastman Johnson, 1896
204. SIPGPO_090404_0220.JPG: Jay Gould (detail)
205. SIPGPO_090404_0229.JPG: John D. Rockefeller, 1839-1937 John D. Rockefeller once remarked, "The only question with wealth is, what do you do with it?" By 1913, Rockefeller, a founder of the Standard Oil Company, had amassed an estimated $900 million, earned from an aggressive reorganization of the oil industry, which granted his company a virtual monopoly and him a tough reputation. An emblem of self-made success, the controversial tycoon rehabilitated his reputation in later years by supporting charitable causes such as medicine, education, and the Baptist Church. Paul Manship's bust reflects the transformation, depicting Rockefeller as a generous benefactor rather than a ruthless industrialist. Paul Manship, 1918
206. SIPGPO_090404_0238.JPG: Charlotte Perkins Gilman, 1860-1935 During an age when social conventions limited the opportunities for women, author Charlotte Perkins Gilman was influential in exposing the problems that lay behind the sentimental facade of domesticity. She achieved an international reputation with the publication of Women and Economics (1898), a book that highlighted the importance of economics in shaping relationships between men and women. Her critique of patriarchal power was in part rooted in her own traumatic experiences as a child and a young wife. Most famously, her chilling short story "The Yellow Wallpaper" dramatized the repressive treatment she received during a period of depression following the birth of her first child. More typically, Gilman's writings focused on specific reforms for everyday living, from child-rearing to women's dress. This portrait sketch shows her as a young woman before her rise to prominence. Ellen Day Hale, before 1880
207. SIPGPO_090404_0256.JPG: Henry George, 1839-1897 "The great American Republic must be a republic in fact as well as form," wrote economist Henry George. As American industry after the Civil War spawned undreamed-of wealth for some and a new and excruciating poverty for others, George became a leading voice in efforts to reform the nation's free-enterprise system. His stinging yet highly popular critique of American capitalism, Poverty and Progress (1879), described with great eloquence the inequities in modern society. According to George, poverty's root cause lay in ever-rising land values. Levying a heavy "single tax" on those values would, he asserted, undermine monopolies, distribute wealth more evenly, and eliminate poverty. Although George failed in his attempt to win elected office, his writings found widespread support, especially within the burgeoning labor movement. George de Forest Brush, c 1888
208. SIPGPO_090404_0272.JPG: Andrew Carnegie, 1835-1919 The individual who amasses great wealth, declared Pittsburgh steelmaker Andrew Carnegie in his 1889 essay "Gospel of Wealth," must in the end apply his fortune for the benefit of all. Having built one of the world's largest fortunes, Carnegie took his mandate seriously. During his lifetime, he turned over a staggering $350 million, or nine-tenths of his total wealth, for benevolent purposes. Carnegie's unprecedented largesse was matched only by its social impact. His Teachers Pension Fund raised instructional standards in colleges; his many library endowments provided Americans with a national system of public libraries; and the Carnegie Corporation, established in 1911, became the prototype for the great philanthropic foundations of the modern day. During the last years of his life, Carnegie devoted his energies to world peace, encouraging the great powers to settle their conflicts through arbitration rather than war. Unidentified artist, c 1905
209. SIPGPO_090404_0275.JPG: Andrew Carnegie (detail)
210. SIPGPO_090404_0285.JPG: Henry Clay Frick, 1849-1919 Like fellow industrialist Andrew Carnegie, Henry Clay Frick grew up in a family of limited means. Yet by age thirty he had made his first million dollars and had positioned himself as a key player in America's industrial development. Believing that steel would be the principal building material of the future, Frick amassed his fortune first by supplying coke-fuel made from coal-to the steel industry and later by partnering with Carnegie to create the world's largest steel company. A cutthroat businessman who opposed labor unions, Frick was aggressive in making his operations more efficient. In 1892, during a violent confrontation with striking steelworkers in Homestead, Pennsylvania, he did not hesitate to call in guards from the Pinkerton Detective Agency and the state militia to break the union's resolve. This double portrait shows the industrialist with his daughter Helen. Edmund C. Tarbell, c 1910
211. SIPGPO_090404_0302.JPG: James Gibbons, 1834-1921 Ordained a Catholic priest in 1861 and made a cardinal in 1887, James Gibbons was one of the most influential clerics of his day. While "he reigned in Baltimore like a king," a British admirer once wrote, "he met every man like a comrade." Gibbons's success in preventing papal condemnation of Catholic laborers participating in the Knights of Labor's struggle for improved working conditions was characteristic of his commitment to the working man. He was also instrumental in maintaining unity in an increasingly diverse American Catholic Church by promoting the acculturation of its foreign-born membership. A friend to several presidents, Gibbons was often called on for counsel on issues ranging from tariff policy to the acquisition of the Philippines. French artist Theobald Chartran's portrait of Gibbons captures the warmth that accounted in large part for his wide influence. Theobald Chartran, 1904
212. SIPGPO_090404_0315.JPG: George Dewey, 1837-1917 George Dewey obtained fame during the Spanish-American War after more than forty years of service. His slow rise through the ranks began at the Naval Academy in Annapolis. During the Civil War, Dewey performed with honor during an assault on New Orleans, earning the rank of lieutenant commander. In 1898, Commodore Dewey gained the command of the Asiatic Squadron stationed in Nagasaki Harbor. With the outbreak of war between Spain and the United States, he was ordered to engage the Spanish fleet stationed near the Philippines. On April 30, Dewey destroyed the fleet and paved the way for U.S. occupation of the islands. Upon his return, Dewey was greeted as a national hero and awarded the rank of admiral. He continued to serve the navy until his death. Theobald Chartran, 1900
213. SIPGPO_090404_0331.JPG: George Dewey (detail)
214. SIPGPO_090404_0337.JPG: Leonard Wood, 1860-1927 During the Spanish-American War, military officer Leonard Wood, together with his friend Theodore Roosevelt, founded the First Volunteer Cavalry Regiment, popularly known as the Rough Riders. Their success in Cuba propelled Roosevelt toward the White House and led Wood to be appointed the provisional governor of Cuba. Although Wood ruled with an iron first, effectively disenfranchising the majority of Cuban citizens, he initiated a number of important projects, including a successful campaign to eradicate the deadly yellow fever epidemic. In 1902, he stepped down from his post, having presided over the adoption of a new constitution and the peaceful turnover of authority. He served a similar position in the Philippines before being selected army chief of staff in 1910. John Singer Sargent admired Wood and in 1903 sought out the opportunity to paint his portrait. John Singer Sargent, 1903
215. SIPGPO_090404_0347.JPG: Mary Cassatt, 1844-1926: The American impressionist Mary Cassatt spent her career in Europe, settling in Paris. Stifled by tradition, she regarded her exposure to the work of Edgar Degas in 1874 as a "turning point in my artistic life." After her rejection by the Paris Salon of 1877, Cassatt welcomed Degas's invitation to exhibit with the impressionists in 1879. Cassatt shared their interest in the depiction of modern life and their commitment to developing innovative methods to capture fleeting moments. A lifelong friend of Degas, she served as model for him on a number of occasions. Despite her high regard for his work, Cassatt later dismissed this portrayal, commenting: "It has artistic qualities but is so painful and represents me as a person so repugnant that I would not wish it to be known that I posed for it." Edgar Degas, c 1880-84
216. SIPGPO_090404_0355.JPG: James McNeill Whistler, 1834-1903 An innovative painter, designer, and printmaker, James McNeill Whistler frequently identified his landscapes and portraits as "symphonies," "nocturnes," and "arrangements," demonstrating his interest in atmosphere, color, and line. Though often neglected in his native United States, Whistler was lionized by the avant-garde of Europe, and his most productive years were spent in London and Paris. The artist's wit and self-fashioning further heightened his celebrity. Joseph Edgar Boehm sculpted this bust in 1872, the year in which Whistler exhibited his now-famous Arrangement in Grey and Black: Portrait of the Artist's Mother at the Royal Academy in London. Joseph Edgar Boehm, 1872
217. SIPGPO_090404_0359.JPG: James McNeill Whistler
218. SIPGPO_090404_0370.JPG: Henry James, 1843-1916 Accustomed to living abroad since childhood, master novelist Henry James was more comfortable in Europe than in the United States. James frequently pursued the theme of encounters between the Old World and the New in his fiction, and his books often explored the plight of Americans who lose their na�vet� through adventures on the Continent. Although James ultimately claimed British citizenship, he never lost his sense of American identity. A close friend of American novelist Edith Wharton, James was visiting her in France when he agreed to sit for this portrait by Jacques-�mile Blanche. Pleased with the final product, which disguised his girth, James declared that "it has a certain dignity of intention and indication-of who and what, poor creature, he 'is'! It ought to be seen in the U.S." Jacques-Emile Blanche, 1908
219. SIPGPO_090404_0373.JPG: Henry James (detail)
220. SIPGPO_090404_0381.JPG: Cecilia Beaux, 1855-1942: Cecilia Beaux's self-portrait projects a well-placed self-confidence. Aware of the challenges facing her as a woman, she declared: "When I attempt anything, I have a passionate determination to overcome every obstacle." The first woman hired to teach at the renowned Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts, Beaux became one of the most admired portraitists of her generation. Heralded by fellow American artist William Merritt Chase as "the best woman artist who ever lived," Beaux enjoyed numerous accolades. She received a gold medal from the American Academy of Arts and Letters for lifetime achievement, and she was one of the first Americans invited to contribute a self-portrait to the Uffizi collection in Florence. Although Beaux trained in France and showed her work internationally, her permanent residence remained in the United States, where she painted friends, family members, and numerous luminaries. Self-portrait, c 1885
221. SIPGPO_090404_0392.JPG: Samuel Clemens, 1835-1910 Using the pen name Mark Twain, Samuel Clemens had become one of this country's favorite satiric writers by the early 1870s, routinely making light of everyday human foibles. But it was the publication of The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (1876) and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884) that assured him a lasting place in American letters. Inspired in part by his own boyhood, these two tales set along the Mississippi River did more than capture the rhythms of youth in antebellum America. In both novels, Clemens examined with sardonic wit various tensions that underlay contemporary society, including, most importantly, the question of race. In later years, his success in this country and abroad was tempered by financial and personal setbacks and by a contempt for American and British imperialism. John White Alexander, c 1912
222. SIPGPO_090404_0397.JPG: Samuel Clemens (detail)
223. SIPGPO_090404_0402.JPG: Samuel Clemens (detail)
224. SIPGPO_090404_0412.JPG: Edith Wharton, 1862-1937 Before embarking on her celebrated writing career, Edith Newbold Jones Wharton led a privileged life as a member of New York society. Edward Harrison May, a British-born artist working in Paris, painted her portrait during an extensive family sojourn in Europe. Wharton, who would become famous for her critical depictions of the New York upper class, as in the Pulitzer Prize-winning Age of Innocence, was strongly influenced by these European trips of her youth. As an adult she chose to spend much of her life abroad, forming friendships with other American expatriates, such as Henry James. Despite Wharton's cheerful demeanor in this portrait, she would later chronicle the frustrations of her childhood. Yet it was during this time that she came to enjoy "making up," occupying the fictional worlds she would write about as an adult. Edward Harrison May, 1870
225. SIPGPO_090404_0430.JPG: Bayard Taylor, 1825-1878 Exotically posed here in Bedouin costume, Bayard Taylor, the son of a sober Philadelphia Quaker family, was the first great American travel writer. By the 1820s, as the nation settled and prospered, Americans turned outward, becoming travelers and tourists to both the Old World and the new territories in the Pacific. Encountering new vistas with the eyes of the young nation, individuals' travel accounts filled the newspapers as Americans became avid consumers of news from elsewhere. Taylor was among the most peripatetic of these writer-journalists and was unusual because he wrote many of his travelogues in verse, a style that only added to his romantic allure. In 1853, he joined Commodore Matthew C. Perry in his mission to Japan and recorded his adventures in "Poems of the Orient" (1854), which included his most famous work, "The Bedouin's Song." Thomas Hicks, 1855
226. SIPGPO_090404_0436.JPG: Bayard Taylor (detail)
227. SIPGPO_090404_0447.JPG: Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1803-1882 In 1832, Harvard-educated minister Ralph Waldo Emerson resigned his post at Boston's Second Congregational Church in a crisis of faith. Having cast off doctrine, Emerson went on in his voluminous writings to create a uniquely American school of philosophy, which harkened back to Thomas Paine's revolutionary politics of "Common Sense" and anticipated William James's pragmatism. In Emerson's system, man approached God (embodied in nature) on his own, taking responsibility for his own salvation. Emerson preached self-reliance as Americans' core attribute; this empowered the individual in a way that led to dreams of perfectionism and supported the culture of American business. Daniel Chester French, 1901
228. SIPGPO_090404_0450.JPG: Ralph Waldo Emerson
229. SIPGPO_090404_0463.JPG: August Belmont and his Family: August Belmont, 1816-1890: During the economic depression known as the panic of 1837, August Belmont-in the United States as an enterprising employee of Germany's Rothschild Bank-scouted the opportunities, resigned from his job, and shortly amassed a fortune, founding the firm of August Belmont and Company. Becoming an American citizen, Belmont turned to politics, and his support for the Democrats was rewarded with ambassadorships to Austria and the Netherlands. A staunch Unionist, Belmont used his European connections to argue the North's cause in both England and on the Continent. He was a patron of the arts and an avid sportsman, and his style of conspicuous consumption anticipated a later generation of American tycoons. Belmont further enhanced his public profile when he married the glamorous daughter of naval hero Matthew Perry in 1849. Wouterus Verschuur, 1854
230. SIPGPO_090404_0471.JPG: August Belmont and his Family (detail)
231. SIPGPO_090404_0474.JPG: August Belmont and his Family (detail)
232. SIPGPO_090404_0478.JPG: August Belmont and his Family (detail)
233. SIPGPO_090404_0483.JPG: August Belmont and his Family (detail)
234. SIPGPO_090404_0491.JPG: John James Audubon, 1785-1851 One of the tasks of early American science was to discover and catalog the flora and fauna of this uncharted land. Working diligently to make the natural world wholly known, artist-naturalists such as George Ord, Alexander Wilson, and the Peale family created faithful renditions of America's birds and animals. The flamboyant John James Audubon, son of a Frenchman and his Creole mistress, revolutionized this dry academic field by creating images of birds with all the color and bravura style of the Romantic period. Audubon frequently got the science wrong-he feuded continually with the earlier generation of ornithologists-but the aesthetic achievement of his Birds of America (1827) cannot be denied. Audubon was a major contributor to the Romantic interpretation of the American landscape by both writers and artists, which took place after about 1820. Unidentified artist, after John Woodhouse Audubon, c 1841
235. SIPGPO_090404_0498.JPG: John James Audubon (detail)
236. SIPGPO_090404_0502.JPG: Noah Webster, 1758-1843 A new nation required a new language. Or so thought the editor and writer Noah Webster, who devoted his lifetime to the idea of a specifically American language, one "as independent in literature as in politics." Webster began his project to create a unified national culture with his "blue-backed spellers" that standardized American spelling. He supplemented the speller with a grammar that relied not on abstract rules but on the observation of actual American usage. The work was an example of the pragmatism and rejection of traditional precedents that characterized American antebellum thinking in fields ranging from law to manufacturing. Webster's great task was the completion of his American Dictionary of the English Language (1828), a reference book whose title announces its intentions to create a lexicographic declaration of independence. James Herring, 1833
237. SIPGPO_090404_0512.JPG: Noah Webster (detail)
238. SIPGPO_090404_0518.JPG: Charlotte Cushman, 1816-1876 Charlotte Cushman was an actor in the same vein as Edwin Forrest, exemplifying the vigor, passion, and emotional fervor that were prized both by the Romantics and by Americans eager to assert their cultural distinctiveness from Europe. Cushman's formal training in London enhanced the emotional directness of her performances. She debuted as Lady Macbeth in 1836 and thereafter went from strength to strength in a range of widely praised performances. Because of Cushman's commanding, supposedly masculine appearance, she also took on male roles such as Romeo and Hamlet, winning praise for these performances as well. The Romantic English poet Elizabeth Barrett Browning commented that this portrait by William Page "is really wonderful-soul and body together." William Page, 1853
239. SIPGPO_090404_0528.JPG: Edwin Forrest, 1806-1872 Like Ira Aldridge, Edwin Forrest debuted on the stage as Othello; but unlike the African American actor, Forrest caused a sensation and became one of the American theater's first great actors. Forrest brought a new naturalism to the American stage, one that exemplified the strength and vigor of the American character. In this portrait he is shown as Metamora, "an original of this country," the Indian hero of a play commissioned by Forrest himself. Forrest became a symbol of American nationalism in the ethnically charged atmosphere of the 1830s and 1840s. In 1849 a nativist mob of his supporters attacked New York's Astor Place Theater, where the English actor William Macready was performing. A panicked police force could not control the riot, and twenty-two people were killed in the melee. Frederick Styles Agate, c 1832
240. SIPGPO_090404_0542.JPG: James Henry Hackett, 1800-1871 A character actor who specialized in comic American "types," James Henry Hackett made his debut in 1826. Here he is shown in the role of Rip Van Winkle, in a play he adapted in 1830 from Washington Irving's story. The role was particularly appropriate for the young United States: the colonial Rip falls asleep and awakens twenty years later, astonished at how America had changed. Hackett went on to have a successful career in both England and the United States. He later moved into theater management, producing, and playwriting. While his contributions to the American theater were great, he always was disappointed that he never succeeded in the major tragic roles. Henry Inman, c 1832
241. SIPGPO_090404_0549.JPG: James Henry Hackett (detail)
242. SIPGPO_090404_0555.JPG: Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 1807-1882 As a poet, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow has suffered the fate of many popular writers: a voice of its time frequently lacks staying power. Thus this mild romantic whose life in Cambridge was placidly comfortable has been eclipsed by his "darker" contemporaries such as Nathaniel Hawthorne and Herman Melville. The jogging rhythms of "The Song of Hiawatha," "Paul Revere's Ride," and other Longfellow ballads are quaint artifacts of bygone New England. Longfellow frequently overstates his poems' moral points, perhaps because he sensed the pragmatic Americans wanted art they could use for self-improvement. Nonetheless, he was the country's first professional poet because he had the literary knowledge and craftsmanship necessary to write verse about America that was comparable in quality to that of his English contemporaries. Thomas Buchanan Read, 1869
243. SIPGPO_090404_0562.JPG: Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (detail)
244. SIPGPO_090404_0572.JPG: Nathaniel Hawthorne, 1804-1864: One of the enduring myths of America is that it has no history but exists in the liberating freedom of the present moment. Nathaniel Hawthorne's novels, fables, and "tales" were a cautionary lesson to Americans who ignored the past. (Hawthorne knew the more optimistic writers represented in this room but was friends with none of them.) His writings secularized the harsh Puritan worldview of his Salem birthplace to remind Americans that actions had consequences, both for individuals and communities. His novels turn on the clash of the individual will-from the lovers in The Scarlet Letter (1850) to the naive philanthropist of The Blithedale Romance (1852)-against the implacability of society and nature. Hawthorne's sympathies are often with his rebels, but his philosophy requires their defeat. It was perhaps the irreconcilability of these viewpoints that led to his artistic decline in the 1850s. Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze, 1862
245. SIPGPO_090404_0582.JPG: Nathaniel Hawthorne (detail)
246. SIPGPO_090404_0590.JPG: Edgar Allan Poe, 1809-1849 Edgar Allan Poe is popularly known for his poem "The Raven" (1844), and like the raven itself, Poe was a dark presence amid the optimism of early American culture. Not for him was the glorification of the individual or the celebration of nature as life-giving. Poe peeled back the underside of America to sketch a world in which nothing, especially human motivation, was transparent, predictable, or even knowable. In their dark, hallucinatory imagery, Poe's writings profoundly influenced such European poets as Baudelaire and Rimbaud. In America, his voice is still singular for the strength with which it spoke against the spirit of the Romantic age in which he lived. Poe's great subject was death, and he seemed to court it in his life as well as art, dying early after proving himself unable to function in the society he dissected so remorselessly. Samuel Stillman Osgood, 1845
247. SIPGPO_090404_0639.JPG: Juliette Gordon Low, 1860-1927 Elegantly depicted by British artist Edward Hughes, Juliette Gordon Low radiates the luxury of elite American birth and marriage to a wealthy Englishman. Low's satisfaction with her privileged lifestyle, however, soon faded. Following her unfaithful husband's death, she became interested in the Girl Guides, an organization established by her friend, British general Sir Robert Baden-Powell, who had also founded the Boy Scouts. Working with disadvantaged girls living near her Scottish estate, Low became a troop leader, imparting practical skills to her charges. After creating troops in London, Low brought the idea to the United States, establishing a troop in her hometown of Savannah, Georgia. In 1915, Low incorporated the Girl Scouts of America. Today the organization continues to inspire girls to pursue "the highest ideals of character, conduct, patriotism, and service that they may become happy and resourceful citizens." Edward Hughes, 1887
248. SIPGPO_090404_0647.JPG: Frederick Augustus Conrad Muhlenberg, 1750-1801 Frederick Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania, a former Lutheran minister and a member of the most prominent German family in America, was elected the first Speaker of the United States House of Representatives. A jolly fellow famous for his oyster suppers, Muhlenberg had considerable experience as a presiding officer; he had served a stint as president of the Continental Congress and had presided over the state convention called to ratify the Constitution in 1787. With President George Washington coming from the South and Vice President John Adams hailing from New England, Muhlenburg's selection provided a nice geographic balance for the new government's start. Muhlenberg is pictured in the act of signing House Bill 65, "An Act to regulate Trade and Intercourse with the Indian Tribes," which he did on July 20, 1790. Joseph Wright, 1790
249. SIPGPO_090404_0657.JPG: Alexander Hamilton, 1755-1804 Alexander Hamilton-"the bastard brat of a Scotch pedlar," as John Adams dubbed him-emigrated to America as a teenager and quickly found a fertile field for his brilliance and drive. By the time Washington appointed him the first secretary of the treasury in 1789, Hamilton had achieved success in war and in marriage; reputation in the law and politics; and fame as the instigator and author (with James Madison and John Jay) of the Federalist Papers. Overriding Thomas Jefferson's notion of America as an agrarian paradise of yeoman farmers (and thus sparking the rise of political parties), Hamilton-whose policies were intended to cement the moneyed interests to the new government-dominated Washington's administration. He restored public credit and laid the groundwork for the nation's banks, commerce, and manufacturing, paving the way for America to become a modern, industrialized nation. John Trumbull, after Giuseppe Ceracchi, 1806
250. SIPGPO_090404_0673.JPG: John Jay, 1745-1829 President George Washington chose John Jay to be the first chief justice of the United States. Jay had played an important part in negotiating the treaty bringing the Revolution to a close, and was the postwar secretary of foreign affairs. An advocate for a stronger national government, Jay had helped persuade New Yorkers to ratify the Constitution, contributing five newspaper essays to the series that became known as the Federalist Papers. In 1794 when war with England threatened, Washington sent Chief Justice Jay to London to defuse the crisis. The treaty that Jay negotiated, which Jeffersonian Republicans seized upon as a repudiation of America's wartime alliance with France and a return to English dominance, set off the cry of "Damn John Jay." Nonetheless the controversial Jay Treaty avoided a war that the young republic was ill-equipped to wage. Gilbert Stuart and John Trumbull, begun 1784, completed by 1818
251. SIPGPO_090404_0676.JPG: John Jay (detail)
252. SIPGPO_090404_0684.JPG: Alexander Hamilton (detail)
253. SIPGPO_090404_0694.JPG: Thomas A. Edison, 1847-1931 Painted during Thomas Alva Edison's visit to Paris for the Universal Exposition of 1889, Abraham A. Anderson's portrait depicts the wealthy entrepreneur at the height of his career. World-renowned for his inventions-including the phonograph, incandescent lamp, and movie camera-Edison, who received numerous honors in Europe, presided over one of the most popular exhibitions at the exposition. Particularly intriguing to audiences was Edison's phonograph, the recent improvement of which Anderson chose to picture. Although Edison patented the device in 1877, earning himself the title of the "Wizard of Menlo Park," eleven years passed before he achieved sufficient clarity of sound to make it commercially viable. Using the word "specie" as a test, Edison labored until it could be properly transmitted. "When that was done," Edison reported, "I knew everything else could be done, which was a fact." Abraham Archibald Anderson, 1890
254. SIPGPO_090404_0698.JPG: Thomas A. Edison (detail).
255. SIPGPO_090404_0716.JPG: Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, 1746-1825 Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, a leading political and military figure in South Carolina, was sought out by John Trumbull in 1791. Trumbull, who was traveling along the East Coast taking "heads" of those who had played a part in events of the American Revolution, had in mind-although he never carried it out-the 1779 siege of Savannah as the topic for one of his historical pieces. Pinckney had been in the thick of the disastrous assault, but had the satisfaction of seeing his well-disciplined regiment hold steady under fire. This portrait remained in his brother's family until presented to the National Portrait Gallery. John Trumbull, 1791
256. SIPGPO_090404_0723.JPG: Thomas Pinckney, 1750-1828 Thomas Pinckney, the former governor of South Carolina, was about to become minister to England when John Trumbull made his portrait for use in a contemplated history painting. Prominent during the American Revolution, Major Pinckney was-along with his older brother Charles-a participant in the ill-fated attempt to recapture Savannah from the British. More significant was his later role as special envoy to Spain, where in 1795 he negotiated a popular treaty benefiting American commerce on the Mississippi River. This portrait remained with descendants until given to the National Portrait Gallery. John Trumbull, 1791
257. SIPGPO_090404_0764.JPG: Susan B. Anthony
258. SIPGPO_090404_0791.JPG: Henry Laurens (detail)
259. SIPGPO_090404_0802.JPG: Henry Laurens (detail)
260. SIPGPO_090404_0806.JPG: Henry Laurens, 1724-1792 South Carolina merchant and planter Henry Laurens, sent by the Continental Congress to secure a much-needed loan from Holland, was captured by the British on the high seas and imprisoned for fifteen months in the Tower of London. Finally exchanged-after the Battle of Yorktown-for General Charles Cornwallis, Laurens posed for his portrait in his former capacity as president of the American Congress. Shortly thereafter he was instructed to join Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, and John Adams as a member of the peace commission. Laurens arrived at Paris just two days before the preliminary treaty bringing the Revolution to a close was signed on November 30, 1782. He inserted a line in the treaty to prevent the British army from "carrying away any Negroes or other property." John Singleton Copley, 1782
261. SIPGPO_090404_0813.JPG: Benjamin Franklin, 1706-1790 Benjamin Franklin, in his day the most famous American in the world, returned from his years representing colonial interests in England just in time to be unanimously elected to represent Pennsylvania at the Second Continental Congress. Behind him was a lifetime of achievement as a printer, an unsurpassed author of wit and wisdom, an inventor, and a scientist. Ahead were his roles as a signer of the Declaration of Independence and as a member of the Constitutional Convention of 1787. In between was his triumph as a diplomat in France, where this portrait was ordered by Madame Brillon de Jouy, who loved Franklin's "droll roguishness which shows that the wisest of men allows his wisdom to be perpetually broken against the rocks of femininity." In 1995, this portrait was selected as the basis for Franklin's engraving on the redesigned $100 bill. Joseph Siffred Duplessis, c 1785
262. SIPGPO_090404_0820.JPG: Benjamin Franklin (detail)
263. SIPGPO_090404_0830.JPG: John Dickinson, 1732-1808 The "Pennsylvania Farmer," as John Dickinson signed himself in the press, was a Philadelphia lawyer, trained in London's Inns of Court, and a politician with experience in the legislatures of both Delaware and Pennsylvania. Dickinson's 1767-68 "Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania," warming that taxation by the British Parliament was a threat to America's traditional liberties, "may be said to have sown the seeds of the Revolution," Charles Willson Peale declared. "They were written with great animation and read with uncommon attention." Peale's original commission for a portrait of Dickinson, ordered by a Marylander living in London, came with a request for American scenery in the background. Hence we see here the falls of the Schuylkill River along with native plants and flowers. Charles Willson Peale, 1770
264. SIPGPO_090404_0835.JPG: John Dickinson (detail)
265. SIPGPO_090404_0846.JPG: David Rittenhouse, 1732-1796 A clockmaker by trade and a self-taught mathematician and astronomer, David Rittenhouse was second only to Benjamin Franklin as the foremost man of science in eighteenth-century America. His surveying instruments were unsurpassed; his astronomical calculations were solicited by almanac publishers near and far; and his orrery (a mathematically precise model of the solar system) was touted as the greatest mechanical wonder of the new world, more complete than anything that could be obtained in Europe. Rittenhouse's name, said physician and patriot Dr. Benjamin Rush, "gave splendor to the American character." Charles Willson Peale painted his friend (and collaborator in experiments to improve rifles during the Revolution) seated before a large reflecting telescope -- perhaps the one bequeathed to him by Benjamin Franklin -- pointing to a comet in orbit. Charles Willson Peale, 1796
266. SIPGPO_090404_0853.JPG: David Rittenhouse (detail)
267. SIPGPO_090404_0865.JPG: John Singleton Copley, 1738-1815 John Singleton Copley, proclaimed John Adams, is "the greatest Master, that ever was in America." While still a teenager, Copley was capable of gratifying Bostonians' desire for realistic portraits; by the time he was twenty, the essentially self-taught artist was painting better pictures than he had ever seen. Frustrated by the limitations of his provincial environment, where people, he complained, generally regarded art as "no more than any other useful trade," Copley longed to go to Europe to study. Increased political turmoil in the wake of the Boston Tea Party of December 1773-his father-in-law was one of the merchants who were supposed to receive the tea dumped in the harbor-spurred his departure for England in June 1774. There, in the flush of new success, he painted his own likeness. He never returned to America. Self-portrait, 1780-84
268. SIPGPO_090404_0876.JPG: John Singleton Copley (detail)
269. SIPGPO_090404_0879.JPG: Anne Catharine Hoof Green, died 1775 Anne Catharine Hoof married printer Jonas Green, future editor of the Maryland Gazette, in 1738, bore fourteen children and, like the good Dutch housewife she was trained to be, helped, as necessary, in her husband's business. Jonas died in 1767, and the widow Green succeeded him as Maryland's public printer and carried on the Gazette, recording opinions and events leading up to the American Revolution. Mrs. Green's obituary lauded her only as a wife and mother, "for conjugal Affection, and parental Tenderness, an Example to her sex." But Charles Willson Peale, showing her with her newspaper in hand, indicates she was also a professional woman -- one of the few of her era. Charles Willson Peale, 1769
270. SIPGPO_090404_0890.JPG: Benjamin West, 1738-1820 Benjamin West was on his way back to Philadelphia after three years of art study in Italy when he arrived in London in 1763. Soon finding himself under the patronage of King George III, he never left. The first American artist to achieve and international reputation, West had an even greater claim to fame, nurturing three generations of American artist who came to him for teaching, direction, and good counsel. "He never, indeed, appeared to be more gratified," a contemporary observed, "than when engaged in enlightening the minds of those who looked up to him for instruction." West's portrait here shows him during the period he was at work on "The Death of General Wolfe," a landmark in the development of history painting. This epic event, which occurred during the 1759 Battle of Quebec, determined that the British, rather than the French, would control the North American continent. Attributed to James Smith, 1770
271. SIPGPO_090404_0900.JPG: Mr. West's Garden, Gallery and Painting Room: By the time he painted this work, Bejamin West had come a long way from his humble beginnings as the son of a rural Pennsylvania innkeeper. His elegant establishment at 14 Newman Street in London reflected his status as history painter to George III and his position as president of the Royal Academy. Here, the West family is posed in front of the long gallery where the artist hung his sketches, drawings, and smaller paintings. That gallery led to the large painting room, where West -- along with his many students and apprentices -- worked and exhibited his enormous history canvases. Benjamin West, c 1808-09
272. SIPGPO_090404_0920.JPG: Mr. West's Garden, Gallery and Painting Room (detail)
273. SIPGPO_090404_0923.JPG: By 1763, when the long struggle for the North American continent had ended with English victory over France, the thirteen American colonies had arrived at maturity, its citizens proud of their rights as Englishmen and accustomed to making their own way in the world. To recoup the cost of the French and Indian War, in 1765 the British Parliament imposed a direct tax on the Americans (undermining the prerogative of colonial legislatures) in the form of stamps to be used on all printed matter. Out rang the cry of "No taxation without representation!" During the decade ahead, opposition to high-handed British rule grew, leading to the convening of the First Continental Congress in September 1774. The "shot heard round the world," fired on Lexington Green on April 19, 1775, overtook events, and the Second Continental Congress, gathering in May, had a war on its hands and a decision to make about America's tie to the mother country.
274. SIPGPO_090404_0927.JPG: Charles Willson Peale, 1741-1827 A creative and energetic force throughout the Revolutionary era and the early Republic, Charles Willson Peale moved to London in 1767 to study painting with Benjamin West. In 1769, he returned to Maryland, where he made portraits of landowners and their families before settling in Philadelphia in 1776. Peale, a militiaman and political figure, sided with radical factions during and after the Revolution, and painted portraits of national heroes in the fight for independence. His portrait gallery became a feature of his Philadelphia Museum -- the nation's first significant museum of natural history -- which opened to the public in 1786. His energy and abilities made him a sought-after painter of portraits of George Washington, a correspondent of Thomas Jefferson, and the leader of an expedition to exhume the skeleton of a mastodon. Members of his large family followed in his footsteps as artists, scientists, and museum entrepreneurs. Self-portrait, c 1791
275. SIPGPO_090404_0940.JPG: Thomas Hancock, 1703-1764 Among the merchant princes of colonial Massachusetts was Thomas Hancock. Hancock started out as an apprentice bookbinder, became a bookseller and publisher, ventured into the import-export business, and did particularly well in supplying British troops during the French and Indian War. His fortune (as well as this miniature, painted about the time he became a member of the Massachusetts Council) was inherited by his nephew, John Hancock, who made good use of it to advance the colonies on the road to independence. John Singleton Copley, c 1758
276. SIPGPO_090404_0952.JPG: Joseph Galloway, 1731-1803: Joseph Galloway, the powerful long-time Speaker of the Pennsylvania Assembly, believed that colonial grievances (which he freely admitted having) should be addressed through orderly petition rather than by clamor in the streets. Appalled by the War for Independence, Galloway stood with the mother country. In late 1778, he departed his native land, leaving his wife, Grace, behind to protect the confiscation of family property. This miniature was painted in England, where Galloway spent the rest of his life. Attributed to Thomas Day, c 1778
277. SIPGPO_090404_0965.JPG: Andrew Oliver, 1706-1774 Although Andrew Oliver, a Massachusetts colonial officeholder of nearly thirty years' standing, regarded the Stamp Act as a "public Misfortune," he agreed to accept the office of collector of stamps. After a mob swarmed over his garden, violated his house, and threatened his life, Oliver gave the impression that he would resign his post. When he did not, his effigy was hung from the Liberty Tree, the site of patriotic protest. While standing under the tree in the rain, Oliver was forced to swear that he would take no measures for enforcing an act "which is so grievous to the People." John Singleton Copley, c 1758
278. SIPGPO_090404_0987.JPG: George Berkeley, 1685-1753 Born and educated in Ireland, Anglican clergyman Berkeley was a religious and intellectual leader in Great Britain. "Westward the course of empire takes its way," he prophesied in 1726, and two years later he departed for Britain's American colonies, settling in Newport, Rhode Island. He hoped eventually to establish a seminary on Bermuda. Accompanying Berkeley was the Scottish-born artist John Smibert, whom Berkeley had invited to serve as an art teacher at his new missionary college. Painted on the eve of their departure, Smibert's likeness represents Berkeley in his clerical robes, book in hand, pointing toward Bermuda, his desired destination. Despite his hopes, Berkeley did not receive the financial support necessary to realize this dream and returned to London in 1731. Smibert, however, stayed on in the American colonies, becoming one of the first professionally trained portraitists in the region. John Smibert, c 1727
279. SIPGPO_090404_0990.JPG: George Berkeley (detail)
280. SIPGPO_090404_1000.JPG: Robert "King" Carter, 1663-1732 As befitting his nickname, Robert "King" Carter was arguably the most powerful Virginian during the first third of the eighteenth century. First elected to Virginia's House of Burgesses in 1691, Carter actively involved himself in politics, twice serving as Speaker of the House and once as governor. Like many Virginians, he was proud of his English heritage, yet was also passionate in defending Virginia's rights within the British empire. As a merchant and tobacco planter, Carter amassed one of the largest fortunes in colonial America. At his death he owned 300,000 acres of land-roughly half the size of Rhode Island today-and oversaw the operation of forty-five plantations and more than 700 slaves. In this portrait, he conveys the self-assured sense of independence that was characteristic of those Virginians who would later revolt against their English rulers. Unidentified artist, c 1720
281. SIPGPO_090404_1008.JPG: Robert "King" Carter (detail)
282. SIPGPO_090404_1020.JPG: Cotton Mather, 1663-1728 The son of the esteemed Puritan minister Increase Mather, Cotton Mather built a life and career that was centered on service to his religion and to the colony that the Puritans built in New England. Despite having a stutter, Mather was a precocious child, and he entered Harvard College at age twelve. Beginning in 1695, the year of his ordination, he served together alongside his father at the influential North, or Second, Church of Boston and in time became regarded as one of the region's leading religious figures. Although he did not instigate the witch trials in nearby Salem in 1692,. Mather tried to contain the crisis and was uneasy about the way the trials were conducted. He ultimately, however, defended the execution of twenty who had been accused of witchcraft. Mather was the author of more than 450 books and pamphlets, including the famous "Magnalia Christi Americana" (1702), a wide-ranging history of the Puritans in New England. Throughout his life, he worked tirelessly to preserve the traditional Puritan faith. Peter Pelham, 1728
283. SIPGPO_090404_1031.JPG: James Oglethorpe, 1696-1785 Largely through his investigations of Britain's penal system, philanthropist James Oglethorpe came to see his country's American empire as a place for England's prisoners to gain a fresh start in life. In 1732, he acted on that conviction, setting sail for America with some 130 debtors and unemployed workers to establish the new colony of Georgia. As governor, Oglethorpe lost no time in introducing measures to promote harmony within his settlement. His first acts included a ban on rum and a law guaranteeing equitable treatment of the region's native peoples. In 1743, he returned permanently to England, although he continued to act as governor until 1752, when the powers of his royal charter reverted back to the king. Thomas Burford's mezzotint depicts Georgia's governor in military dress and was meant to commemorate his armed attempts to keep Spanish authorities out of Florida. Thomas Burford, before 1757
284. SIPGPO_090404_1041.JPG: John Eliot's Indian Bible: John Eliot (1604-1690) oversaw the publication of the first Bible printed in America. This rare first edition was printed in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1663. Eliot believed that his missionary work among the native peoples of New England would be greatly enhanced if the Bible could be translated into their language. He spent ten years on this project, during which time he was compelled to invent vocabulary as well as grammar to express ideas foreign to his intended readership. This volume also contained an impassioned dedication to Charles II, asking the king to recognize the superior value of converted souls over the gold and silver that the Spanish extracted from their American colonies.
285. SIPGPO_090404_1047.JPG: Elizabeth I, 1533-1603 Eager to undermine the power of Spain, which was fed by holding in North and South America, Queen Elizabeth I encouraged exploration of the New World. During her reign, Sir Francis Drake sailed to present-day South America and California. In the mid-1580s Sir Walter Raleigh attempted to establish a British colony on Roanoke Island, which he named Virginia in honor of the "Virgin Queen," who never married. Keenly aware of the political power of portraiture, Elizabeth I carefully monitored the production and dissemination of her likeness. In this early portrait, made shortly after her accession to the throne, she boldly declares her new status. The words "Elizabeth Regina" are amplified by the prominent inclusion of the jewel around her neck. Known as "The Mirror of France," the square-cut stone had belonged to her father, King Henry VIII, the source of her royal authority. Unidentified artist, c 1558
286. SIPGPO_090404_1061.JPG: John Eliot, 1604-1690 No Puritan leader in seventeenth-century New England was more interested in the welfare of the region's Native American population than John Eliot. A graduate of Cambridge University, Eliot immigrated to Boston in 1631. While serving as the pastor of a church in Roxbury, Eliot began to search for ways to perform missionary work among the region's tribal communities. He studied the local Algonquian language, and by 1646 he was preaching to the native inhabitants in their own language. In order to protect his potential Christian converts, he established the first of fourteen towns for so-called "praying Indians" in 1651.. Perhaps his most extraordinary accomplishment, though, was the translation of the Bible into an Algonquian dialect -- a task that required Eliot to invent new words and new grammatical structures. Its publications in 1661 marked the first printing of a Bible in America. Unidentified artist, not dated
287. SIPGPO_090404_1071.JPG: John Eliot (detail)
288. SIPGPO_090404_1079.JPG: The Glorious Progress of the Gospel amongst the Indians in New England: John Eliot helped to publish a series of "Indian Tracts" in order to publicize the fruits of his missionary work to constituents back in England and to raise funds for these endeavors. This particular tracts -- published in 1649, two years after the establishment in Natick, Massachusetts, of the first community for "praying Indians" -- included letters from Eliot chronicling the "glorious progress" being made in New England. It also included transcribed confessions of faith by fifteen Native Americans who sought full membership in the Puritan church. Such testimonials were invaluable in building support for Eliot's work.
289. SIPGPO_090404_1088.JPG: John Winthrop, 1588-1649 His contemporaries thought he was the most powerful individual in Massachusetts, and historians agree on John Winthrop's profound importance in early New England. He was the founder and first governor (reelected eleven times) of a colony established by reformed Protestants, or Puritans, so that they could practice their religion free from the interference of the English church. This did not make Winthrop and the Puritans believers in religious freedom, a concept most regarded as incompatible with political and social stability. In his use of the biblical phrase a "City upon a Hill," Winthrop did not proclaim the colony a model, but warned that failure would allow others "to speak evil" of God. He was not a modern "democrat," but transformed the colony from a mercantile corporation to a commonwealth, and believed that leaders ultimately owed their position to the voters. Unidentified artist, not dated
290. SIPGPO_090404_1096.JPG: John Winthrop (detail)
291. SIPGPO_090404_1106.JPG: Benjamin Lay, c 1681-1759 Quaker reformed Benjamin Lay was a key figure in the emerging antislavery movement prior to the Revolutionary War. Having witnessed slavery's horrors while working as a merchant in Barbados, Lay dedicated himself to the abolitionist cause. He was forced, however, to leave this Caribbean Island in 1731 in the wake of intensifying hostility by local slave owners. Settling in Philadelphia, he resumed his campaign, writing pamphlets and speaking out at Quaker meetings. His efforts ultimately compelled the Philadelphia Society of Friends in 1758 to pass a resolve expelling those members who owned slaves. This portrait of the diminutive activist was commissioned by Benjamin Franklin, whose printing shop had published one of Lay's most stinging abolitionist tracts. Here, Lay stands before the cavelike dwelling in which he and his wife lived and holds a treatise "on happiness" by English Quaker philosopher Thomas Tryon. William Williams, 1750
292. SIPGPO_090404_1116.JPG: John Bradstreet, 1714-1774: An ambitious British army officer, John Bradstreet was a conspicuous player in the contest between the English and French for control of the North American continent. Participating in military events ranging from the capture of the French fortress at Louisbourg in 1745 to the campaign against Pontiac in 1764, Bradstreet particularly distinguished himself during the French and Indian wars in the capture of Fort Frontenac, which secured Fort Oswego for the British. Falling out of favor after negotiating a naive and soon-to-be repudiated peace treaty with several Indian tribes, Colonel Bradstreet nonetheless achieved the rank of major general in 1772. Bradstreet's likeness (in its original carved gilt frame), is one of the forty-six known portraits painted by Thomas McIlworth, a Scottish artist who arrived in America in 1757. He worked in New York until he left for Montreal in 1767 and disappeared from sight. Thomas McIlworth, c 1764
293. SIPGPO_090404_1130.JPG: Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, 1723-1790 A wealthy planter and merchant who owned some 11,000 acres in Maryland at his death, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer held numerous publish offices before, during, and after the American Revolution. In 1760, he helped to settle the boundary dispute between Pennsylvania and Maryland that resulted in the Mason-Dixon line. Before the colonies' break with England, Jenifer served on the Royal Governor's Council and closely aligned himself with Maryland's conservative ruling elements. When Anglo-American hostilities broke out in 1775, however, he sided with Maryland's rebelling forces and proved invaluable in marshalling support for their cause. In subsequent years, he served in the Continental Congress and helped to draw up the Constitution. John Hesselius, whose father Gustavus was also an artist, painted this likeness of Jenifer when the subject was still part of Maryland's colonial government. John Hesselius, c 1760-70
294. SIPGPO_090404_1147.JPG: John Morgan, 1735-1789 Dr. John Morgan's noted student, Benjamin Rush, once remarked that Morgan's name should forever be linked with the birth of professionalism in American medicine. Having first worked on the western frontier as a military surgeon during the French and Indian War, Morgan pursued an advanced medical degree at Edinburgh University in Scotland. Upon returning home to Philadelphia in 1765, Morgan played a key role in the establishment of America's first medical school. During the Revolutionary War, he served two years as the director-general of the Hospital of the Army. In this position, Morgan confronted daunting medical challenges, including an outbreak of smallpox and also extraordinary infighting among army officials who were unaccustomed to a centralized medical service. This portrait was created by noted Swiss-born artist Angelica Kauffmann in Rome during Morgan's visit there in 1764. Angelica Kauffmann, 1764
295. SIPGPO_090404_1153.JPG: John Morgan (detail)
296. SIPGPO_090404_1165.JPG: William Shirley, 1694-1771 Appointed colonial governor of Massachusetts in 1741, William Shirley spent much of the next fifteen years in military and diplomatic engagements with the French. After war broke out between England and France in 1744, Shirley won an important victory by orchestrating a successful attack on the French stronghold at Louisbourg, Nova Scotia. This portrait by distinguished English painter Thomas Hudson-with a background that recalls this famous naval conquest-was painted in London while Shirley was participating in boundary negotiations with the French following the war's end in 1748. In 1755, at the outset of the French and Indian War, King George II promoted Shirley to commander of British forces in North America. He lost this position and his governorship a year later, however, after failing to halt French advances. Thomas Hudson, 1750
297. SIPGPO_090404_1174.JPG: Charles III, 1716-1788 In 1779, Charles III, the king of Spain, made a formal strategic alliance with France and declared war on England. In engaging the British militarily, Charles was in effect aiding the American quest for independence, despite his fear that the revolution might spread to his own American colonies. His goal was to remove the British from the region surrounding the Gulf of Mexico and the Mississippi River. Under the leadership of General Bernando de Galvez, Spanish forces were successful in expelling the British from this territory. This earlier print shows Charles surrounded by the ancient treasures of Herculaneum, the ruins of which were excavated during his reign. Charles was interested both in the wonders of the past and the present welfare of his subjects. He modernized Madrid and severely curbed the power of the Inquisition. The Spanish domain in North America reached its greatest extend under Charles's rule. Filippo Morghen, after Camillo Paderni, c 1760
298. SIPGPO_090404_1189.JPG: Cunne Shote, 1710-1785 Cunne Shote traveled from his Tennessee River valley home to London in 1762 with two other Cherokee chiefs to meet King George III and to cement an alliance between the British and the Cherokee. During this visit, Francis Parsons completed this portrait in which the chief wears two medals and a gorget given to him by the king. Cunne Shote was pleased with the likeness and supposedly remarked that "his friends would have something to remember him [by] when he was gone to fight the French." This alliance was important both to the British in their ongoing conflict with the French and to the Cherokee in their effort to remain independent. A year later, Britain completed its victory over the French in the Seven Years' War, and in doing so added vast territories to its holdings east of the Mississippi River that the French had previously claimed. During the American Revolution, the Cherokee remained loyal to the British. Francis Parsons, 1762
299. SIPGPO_090404_1198.JPG: George Catlin, 1796-1872 Fisk painted this likeness while Catlin was in London to show his Indian Gallery of portraits and landscapes. The American artist appears in a teepee among the Blackfoot Indians of the Upper Missouri River. Fisk painted the figures in the background after Catlin's portraits of Iron Horn and Woman Who Strikes Many. Catlin was nearly bankrupt, having failed to find a buyer for the hundreds of paintings he had created on trips up the Missouri and Mississippi and down into Florida. He had come to London fleeing the French authorities and was selling copies of works from the Indian Gallery to get by. Fisk's portrait masks these sad circumstances, offering instead a heroic image of Catlin as a frontiersman, risking his life in the wilderness to preserve a record of cultures he feared would disappear. William Fisk, 1849
300. SIPGPO_090404_1208.JPG: Visit of the Prince of Wales, President Buchanan, and Dignitaries to the Tomb of Washington at Mount Vernon, October 1860: Thomas P. Rossiter, 1861
301. SIPGPO_090404_1218.JPG: Visit of the Prince of Wales, President Buchanan, and Dignitaries to the Tomb of Washington at Mount Vernon, October 1860 (detail)
302. SIPGPO_090404_1226.JPG: Visit of the Prince of Wales, President Buchanan, and Dignitaries to the Tomb of Washington at Mount Vernon, October 1860 (detail)
303. SIPGPO_090404_1228.JPG: Josef de Jaudenes y Nebot, 1764-before 1819 Born in Valencia, Josef de Jaudenes came to New York in 1785 as an assistant to the first Spanish minister plenipotentiary to the United States, Diego de Gardoqui. When Gardoqui returned to Spain in 1790, Jaudenes served as interim charge d'affairs. In 1794, Jaudenes married the sixteen-year-old Matilda Stoughton, daughter of the Spanish consul-general in Boston. To celebrate this event, he hired the well-regarded Gilbert Stuart, who had returned from England the previous year and was living in New York, to paint their portraits. Early on Jaudenes's career flourished: Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson introduced him to President George Washington, and he was consulted on issues regarding navigation on the Mississippi. Neither aspiration nor money gained him the job of minister plenipotentiary, and the couple returned to Spain in July 1796. Gilbert Stuart, 1794
304. SIPGPO_090404_1234.JPG: Josef de Jaudenes y Nebot (detail)
305. SIPGPO_090404_1239.JPG: Matilda Stoughton de Jaudenes y Nebot, 1778-after 1822: All her life, Matilda Stoughton traveled in the finest social circles. Her father, John Stoughton, was the Spanish counsel-general in Boston and a key figure in Spanish-American relations before and during the American Revolution. While in New York, she and her husband attended a party hosted by Mrs. John Jay in 1794, where one guest noted that "they were fine as little dolls." In Philadelphia in 1795, the two were at a dinner given by George Washington, and there a fellow diner commented that she was "brilliant with diamonds." After their return to Spain in 1796, she and her husband, who became a member of the Royal Guards and was made a knight of the Order of Carlos III in 1803, spent much of their time at his family's ancestral estate near Palma, Majorca. Gilbert Stuart, 1794
306. SIPGPO_090404_1243.JPG: Matilda Stoughton de Jaudenes y Nebot (detail)
307. SIPGPO_090405_07.JPG: Elizabeth Winthrop Chanler (Mrs. John Jay Chapman) According to John Singer Sargent, twenty-six-year-old Elizabeth Chanler had "the face of the Madonna and the eyes of a child." This portrait shows a beautiful, well-bred woman who had learned to be strong. When Elizabeth was still a girl, her mother died, leaving her to help care for seven younger brothers and sisters. Sargent painted her while she was in London for a brother's wedding, and the artist composed the portrait as if to suggest a turmoil of emotions in his sitter. The top half of the portrait is ordered and still. Elizabeth's gaze is direct, her face centered between paintings: a Madonna and Child and a figure of an old woman copied from Frans Hals. But the lower half is full of tension. Her arms, leg-of-mutton sleeves, and the pillows seem to wrestle with one another; only her clasped fingers and elbows keep everything under control. Perhaps the artist wished to show Elizabeth as a woman who, despite early hardships, was neither maiden nor matron. Sargent was often dismissed by his contemporaries as a "society portraitist," but his painting always convey they human story behind the image. John Singer Sargent, 1893
308. SIPGPO_090405_13.JPG: Edward Shippen Burd of Philadelphia: Rembrandt Peale, c 1806
309. SIPGPO_090405_23.JPG: Samuel F. B. Morse Horatio Greenough, 1831
310. SIPGPO_090405_36.JPG: Benjamin Rush, 1746-1813 Dr. Benjamin Rush suggested the title for Thomas Paine's historic pamphlet, "Common Sense," which argued against British rule. His signature appears on the Declaration of Independence and the physician fought for better conditions in military hospitals during the Revolutionary War. This portrait shows Rush before the Pine Building of the Medical College in Philadelphia, where he taught for many years. At President Jefferson's request, the doctor also advised Captain Lewis of the Lewis and Clark expedition on the best ways to keep his men healthy on their journey across the continent. Rush is known as the "grandfather of psychiatry," and was one of the first to recognize alcoholism and mental illness as diseases rather than character flaws or moral failings. In 1786, he established the Philadelphia Dispensary, the first health clinic for the poor in the United States. Thomas Sully, 1813
311. SIPGPO_090405_42.JPG: Benjamin West: Six months before he died, Benjamin West looked unflinchingly into the mirror to paint his self-portrait. He holds a drawing pencil and wears a painter's robe and beaver hat, which identify him as a founder and president of the Royal Academy of Art. The light is strongest on his face and hands, but the rest of the picture falls into shadow, as if he foresaw his own end. West was official painter to the king of England and this first American artist to gain an international reputation. His example led generations of American artists to measure their art and professional identities by European standards. Self-portrait, 1819
312. SIPGPO_090405_50.JPG: Robert Hooper: Mr. Hooper was the son of Robert King Hooper, who owned a fishing fleet that worked out of Marblehead, Massachusetts. The younger man already sports the rotund physique that Copley had captured in a portrait of Hooper's father years earlier. Behind him, the sea, visible through an open window, recalls the source of his family's riches. Robert had graduated from Harvard in 1763, and Copley's painting shows him settling into the comfortable life of a merchant prince. Copley owed his living to his new class, whose wealth supported the artists, writers, and educators of the colonies. He had joined the elite not long before, through his marriage to Susanna Clarke, daughter of a prominent Boston merchant. The union literally moved Copley up in the world, where he and "Sukey" bought property on Beacon Hill above downtown Boston. John Singleton Copley, c 1770
313. SIPGPO_090408_02.JPG: Thomas Ash II, 1785-after 1824 Thomas Ash "succeeded to the long established and well known manufactory of Fancy and Windsor chairs" at 33 John Street in New York City upon the death of his father, William, in 1815. He advertised that year that he had "on hand, an assortment of Chairs... of the newest fashions, and suited for domestic use or the foreign market." Ash also made frames for paintings, which may have provided the opportunity to have his portrait painted. A rare depiction of an early American craftsman, this is also one of the first works by the young Thomas Sully, who later became the preeminent American portrait painter of the Jacksonian era. Sully had studied briefly with portrait painter Gilbert Stuart in Boston, and was working in New York as a studio assistant to John Trumbull when he painted Ash. Thomas Sully, 1807
314. SIPGPO_090408_13.JPG: Henry Kirke Brown, 1814-1886 After beginning his artistic career as a portrait painter, Henry Kirke Brown became a sculptor and created portraits in marble and bronze, several of which are in the national Portrait Gallery collection. After four years of study in Europe, where he also developed an interest in sculpting Native American subjects, Brown returned to the United States in 1848 and traveled west, visiting tribes on Mackinac Island in Michigan. Several important works resulted from this trip, including a large bronze, "Indian and Panther", which is now unlocated. A plaster model for this piece, lauded during his lifetime as his best work, is visible in the background of Louis Lang's small cabinet portrait. Lang and Brown had known each other since the mid-1840s, when both artists were studying in Rome. Louis Lang, 1863
315. SIPGPO_090410_007.JPG: Mary Church Terrell, 1863-1954: Mary Church Terrell's determination to encourage the development of self-help and social service programs among black women resulted in her founding and presiding over the National Association of Colored Women in 1896. But her life was also dedicated to the achievement of equity for all. Terrell's influence quickly spread across the nation as she eloquently addressed audiences and composed numerous articles, poems, and short stories, which often embodied the themes of race and gender equity. Her autobiography, "A Colored Woman in a White World," was published in 1940. In Washington, Terrell served on the DC Board of Education for more than ten years and participated in numerous protests to end segregation in restaurants, hotels, and theaters in the city. Betsy Graves Reyneau, 1946
316. SIPGPO_090410_015.JPG: James Farmer, 1900-1984 James Farmer first experienced racial segregation at age three, when his mother had to explain to him that because he was black he could not buy a soda at a local drugstore. He never forgot that incident. Inspired by the nonviolent protest tactics of Mahatma Gandhi, Farmer helped to found the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) in 1942 and began organizing sit-ins to protest discrimination in public accommodations. In 1961 he launched the so-called Freedom Rides to end segregation in interstate transportation and in train- and bus-station waiting rooms. This initiative made national headlines when two buses carrying CORE members were firebombed and the riders beaten by a white mob outside Birmingham, Alabama. Alice Neel pictured Farmer "full of anger" in this portrait, created in 1964, the same year as the murder of three CORE members in Mississippi. Alice Neel, 1964
317. SIPGPO_090410_022.JPG: Vernon Jordan, 1935- In his early career, Vernon Jordan played an important role in the civil rights movement, heading the United Negro College Fund in the 1960s and serving as president of the National Urban League (1972-81). His contributions were primarily in the building of organizational strength and infrastructure. After being seriously wounded by a white supremacist sniper in 1980, Jordan changed career direction, from civil rights to law and politics. He became a partner in the Washington law firm of Akin Gump Strauss Hauser & Feld and led President Bill Clinton's transition team. During the Clinton years, Jordan not only played an important role in that administration but became a key adviser in the Democratic Party. He is also viewed as an influential spokesman in the business world, serving on the corporate boards of such institutions as American Express and Dow Jones. Bradley Stevens, 2005.
318. SIPGPO_090410_027.JPG: Barry Bingham, 1906-1988 As the owner and publisher of two well-respected Louisville newspapers, Barry Bingham became famous for promoting social and political reform in the period following World War II. An outspoken champion of improved public education, care for the mentally ill, and environmental protection, Bingham also actively participated in the civil rights campaign. His editorials in support of school desegregation and in opposition to the poll tax designed to disenfranchise African Americans prompted loud criticism from many of his readers. Despite this outcry, his voice proved influential in assuring the peacefulness of Louisville's move to integrate in 1956. Bingham was also an important behind-the-scenes influence in the Democratic Party, a dedicated philanthropist, and the administrator of the Marshall Plan in France in the late 1940s. Portrait painter Gardner Cox created this likeness at a time when he was interested in adapting the gestural brushwork of abstract expressionism to his own traditional style. Gardner Cox, 1970
319. SIPGPO_090410_035.JPG: Haywood Patterson, 1913-1952 Haywood Patterson was one of nine African American teenagers who were falsely accused in 1931 of raping two white women aboard a freight train. Despite an absence of due process and a fair trail, Patterson and seven others were found guilty in an Alabama courtroom and sentenced to death. The railroading of the "Scottsboro Boys" received national attention and worldwide condemnation. Despite numerous retrials, Patterson spent the next sixteen years in prison before escaping to Michigan, where the governor refused to extradite him. During this period, Patterson agreed to recount the horrific story of his imprisonment to a New York author. This photograph was made to publicize the 1950 release of the book that resulted from this exchange, a work that one reviewer observed "will leave you with a deep sense of personal shame if you are at all concerned with the basic American concepts of fair play and justice." Lotte Jacobi, 1950
320. SIPGPO_090410_040.JPG: Charles H. Houston, 1895-1950 The son of a prominent Howard University law professor, Charles H. Houston attended Harvard University Law School, where he edited the "Harvard Law Review," and graduated in 1922. Between 1929 and 1935, he served as vice dean of Howard University Law School. A member of the NAACP legal staff, he was the architect of numerous decisions striking down segregation in labor unions (1944), higher education (1938 and 1945), and housing (1948). His success in prosecuting those cases developed the strategy that led to the landmark Supreme Court decision in Brown v Board of Education (1954), which declared that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. Betsy Graves Reyneau, 1943-44.
321. SIPGPO_090410_059.JPG: Earl Warren, 1891-1974 When President Dwight Eisenhower appointed Earl Warren as chief justice of the United States in 1953, no one had any idea of the far-reaching impact Warren would have on the Supreme Court. But with the Court's historic decision of 1954 requiring school desegregation, Americans soon had an indication. The unanimous findings in "Brown v the Board of Education of the City of Topeka" disallowed the right of local jurisdictions to segregate their public school systems by race. In words carefully chosen to ensure everyone would understand his meaning, Warren declared on behalf of his fellow justices: "In the field of public education, the doctrine of 'separate by equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal." Despite attempts by many southern states to block forced integration in ensuing years, the Brown decision ultimately prevailed. Emil Jean Kosa Jr., 1963
322. SIPGPO_090410_065.JPG: Christopher Reeve, 1952-2004 Perhaps best known for his role as Superman, actor Christopher Reeve went on to become a powerful voice for people living with disabilities after a 1995 equestrian accident left him paralyzed from the neck down. Reeve lived his life according to his own definition of a hero -- "an ordinary individual who finds strength to persevere and endure in spite of overwhelming obstacles." His advocacy efforts led to the passage of the 1999 Work Incentives Improvement Act, allowing people with disabilities to return to work and still receive disability benefits. He also served as chairman of the board of the Christopher Reeve Paralysis Foundation, which supports research to develop effective treatments and cures for paralysis caused by spinal cord injury and other central nervous system disorders. This full-length portrait by Sasha Newley was completed shortly before the actor-turned-activitst's death. Sacha Newley, 2004
323. SIPGPO_090410_072.JPG: Betty Friedan, 1921-2006 Betty Friedan's analysis of women's limited roles in American society, entitled "The Feminine Mystique," was published in 1962. This controversial book galvanized the modern-day feminist movement and led to Friedan's co-founding the National Organization for Women. Her focus on family values and the role of partnership in marriage continued into the late 19900s and she encouraged the creation of a "new paradigm... one based on today's economic and demographic realities." Artist Alice Matzkin arrived at Friedan's home in Washington DC, hoping to have one question answered: "What makes life worthwhile?" Seventy-two photographs and fifteen minutes later, Friedan had entered a reflective state that inspired Matzkin's rendering of the feminist matriarch. Alice Matzkin, 1995
324. SIPGPO_090410_077.JPG: The Return to Aztlan: Cesar Chavez, 1927-1993: Encouraged by the civil rights movement, labor organizer Cesar Chavez began in the early 1960s to protest the unfair treatment of farm workers in California and the Southwest, the majority of whom were Mexican or Mexican American. In 1963, he and Dolores Huerta founded the United Farm Workers of America (UFW), which started a boycott of California grapes in 1965 as part of a movement to improve working conditions for field laborers. This eventually resulted in a national boycott of grapes by many sympathetic Americans. This painting links modern-era activists Chavez and Huerta to historic figures Miguel Hidalgo and Jose Maria Morelos (leaders in Mexico's War of Independence) and Emiliano Zapata (Mexican revolutionary and champion of agrarian reform), who shared their Mexican heritage and a commitment to justice. The painting's title refers both to the mythical homeland of the Aztec people and to the cultural realm of Greater Mexico. Alfredo Arregiun, 2005
325. SIPGPO_090419_004.JPG: Richard Mentor Johnson, 1780-1850 Colonel Richard M. Johnson of Kentucky, touted as the supposed slayer of the Shawnee leader Tecumseh during the War of 1812, was the champion in Congress of "ordinary people" and foe of the "moneyed elite." His huge political appeal in the West won him the nomination as Martin Van Buren's running mate in 1836, but his common-law relationship with a slave, by whom he had daughters he sought to present into society (among other things), caused Virginia electors to bolt. Left without a majority in the Electoral College, Johnson became vice president by a vote in the Senate. Johnson is portrayed here in his earlier years, a man "whose countenance beams with good will to all," noted Washington's social chronicler, Margaret Bayard Smith. Attributed to Matthew Harris Jouett, c 1818
326. SIPGPO_090419_017.JPG: John Jacob Astor, 1763-1848 John Jacob Astor, the son of a butcher, arrived in New York from Germany (by way of England, where he learned to speak the language) in 1783 with seven flutes as his business capital. He made his first fortune in the western fur trade, increased it in the China trade, went on to accumulate New York real estate, and built Astor House, the grand hotel that would be described as "the marvel of the age." By the 1830s Astor had become the richest man in the United States. "It's all a matter of habit," he said, "and good habits in America make any man rich." Astor left the bulk of his estate to his family, but bequeathed $400,000 to the city of New York for a library, which opened the year after his death. John Wesley Jarvis, c 1825
327. SIPGPO_090419_027.JPG: John Marshall, 1755-1835 When the venerable John Marshall posed for William James Hubard -- a silhouette artist lately turned to oil painting -- he had been chief justice of the United States for some three decades. The momentous decisions firmly establishing the judiciary as a coequal branch of the government were now behind him. Moving into his late seventies, Marshall contemplated retirement, a time when he would "read nothing but novels and poetry," but a fear that President Andrew Jackson would appoint a successor who would tear the Constitution to shreds had stayed his resignation. Jackson would outlast him, but Marshall's legacy-embodying a strong nationalism and respect for property rights-shaped the future of the country. The Liberty Bell in Philadelphia cracked when tolling his death. William James Hubard, c 1832
328. SIPGPO_090419_033.JPG: John Marshall (detail)
329. SIPGPO_090419_044.JPG: John Stevens, 1747-1838 Revolutionary War colonel John Stevens, trained in the law and self-educated as an engineer, was a pioneer in steam-engine experimentation. In 1804 his small steamboat, Little Juliana, operated by twin-screw propellers, made a successful trip across the Hudson and back to the New Jersey shore. Barred by the monopoly held by Robert Fulton from operating on the Hudson River, Stevens in 1808 sent his paddle steamer Phoenix-the first completely American-built steam engine-to Philadelphia by sea and opened a steamship line between that city and Trenton. In 1825 Stevens designed the first American-built steam locomotive, operating it, at the rate of over twelve miles per hour, on a circular track on his estate in Hoboken to demonstrate the feasibility of steam (as a replacement for horses) to power railroad transportation. Unidentified artist, c 1830
330. SIPGPO_090419_053.JPG: Nicholas Biddle, 1786-1844: Nicholas Biddle, elected president of the Second Bank of the United States in 1822, was-until Andrew Jackson brought him down-arguably the most powerful man in the country. Biddle guided the economy through a spectacular period of growth and development, but the Bank, seen as a tool of the "moneyed interest," was hated by many. Jackson vetoed its recharter in 1832 and transferred government deposits into "pet" state banks. Biddle fought back but could not prevail. In 1839 he retired to Andalusia, his spectacular Greek Revival mansion in Bucks County on the banks of the Delaware River. E. Luigi Persico, c 1838 cast from 1837 marble
331. SIPGPO_090419_058.JPG: Nicholas Biddle
332. SIPGPO_090419_067.JPG: DeWitt Clinton, 1769-1828 De Witt Clinton, masterful politician of New York-in and out of office as mayor of the city and governor of the state-was a man who saw America with the potential for unlimited progress. His great dream was for a canal linking the Great Lakes with the Hudson River. When expected federal financing did not materialize, Clinton set out to put public pressure for funding on the state legislature. A bond issue was approved just in time for Clinton, newly elected as governor, to preside over the groundbreaking ceremonies on July 4, 1817. Eight years later, Clinton, returned to office, directed the great celebration of the Erie Canal's completion. "Clinton's Ditch" was a popular and immediate financial success and contributed enormously to the growth and prosperity of New York and the Northwest Territory as well. John Wesley Jarvis, c 1816
333. SIPGPO_090419_076.JPG: Horace Mann, 1796-1859 "Be ashamed to die until you have won some victory of humanity," Horace Mann told the graduating class at Antioch College, just months before his own death. Mann's greatest victories had been achieved during his years as secretary of the Massachusetts Board of Education (1837-48), when he revolutionized a faltering school system by improving the curriculum, persuading the legislature to appropriate more money for salaries and buildings, and establishing the country's first teacher-training institutions. Free public education, Mann proclaimed, was essential, at a time of increased immigration and expanding democracy, to the good order and prosperity of society. Thomas A. Carew, 1852
334. SIPGPO_090419_081.JPG: Horace Mann
335. SIPGPO_090419_087.JPG: Horace Mann
336. SIPGPO_090419_093.JPG: Edward Hicks, 1780-1849 Edward Hicks was a Quaker preacher who made his living as a coach and sign painter. His life was directed by his religion, and in the pictures he undertook as a labor of love he returned repeatedly to a pacifist theme inspired by the prophecy in the Old Testament's book of Isaiah: "The wolf also shall dwell with the lamb, and the leopard shall lie down with the kid." Portrayed by his cousin Thomas, Edward Hicks is here at work on one of the hundred of so versions of "The Peaceable Kingdom" that he painted between 1820 and the night before his death in 1849. His artwork was sold, bartered, or given away to his Bucks County, Pennsylvania, neighbors, and until the twentieth century, Hicks was renowned, not as an artist, but for his ability to share aloud the "inner light" arising from silent spiritual contemplation. Thomas Hicks, 1839
337. SIPGPO_090419_106.JPG: Edward Hicks (detail)
338. SIPGPO_090419_108.JPG: Edward Hicks (detail)
339. SIPGPO_090419_113.JPG: Sequoyah, c 1770-c. 1843 Sequoyah, the son of a Cherokee chief's daughter and a fur trader from Virginia, was a warrior and hunter and, some say, a silversmith. For twelve years he worked to devise a method of writing for the Cherokee language. His syllabary of eighty-five symbols, representing vowel and consonant sounds, was approved by the Cherokee chiefs in 1821, and the simple utilitarian system made possible a rapid spread of literacy throughout the Cherokee nation. Medicine men set down ceremonies for healing, divination, war, and traditional ball games; missionaries translated hymns and the New Testament into the native language; and in 1828 the Cherokee Phoenix, a weekly bilingual newspaper, began publication at New Echota, Georgia. The original portrait of Sequoyah, painted by Charles Bird King, was destroyed by the fire that swept through the Smithsonian Castle building in January 1865. Henry Inman, after Charles Bird King, c 1830
340. SIPGPO_090419_122.JPG: John Summerfield, 1798-1825 In 1821, John Summerfield, a young Methodist evangelist, arrived in New York from England to preach a gospel of salvation. A religious revival was stirring in the United States, and Summerfield found a receptive audience. In Washington the crowds that came to hear him were so great that he was forced to move outside and preach on the steps of the Capitol. "When he becomes animated," a newspaper account reported, "he appears as if the very breathings of the Spirit were on him and his countenance is lighted with a fire bright and holy." Summerfield was painted by his fellow Methodist William Jewett before "disease marred his youthful beauty." He died of tuberculosis at the age of twenty-seven, a month after he helped found the American Tract Society, established to carry the gospel across the expanding country. William Jewett, c 1821-25
341. SIPGPO_090419_137.JPG: Thomas Paul, 1773-1831 A pioneer in the establishment of independent black churches, Thomas Paul was educated at the Free Will Baptist Church in Hollis, New Hampshire, and came to Boston as an itinerant preacher. In August 1805 he led the effort to found the African Baptist Church, and by the end of the year a meeting house (which stands today as the oldest surviving black church building in America) was completed on Beacon Hill. During the next twenty-five years, Paul exerted strong leadership over a growing congregation and won fame as he expanded his missionary work. Famed diarist Reverend William Bentley of Salem went to hear Paul speak and recorded: "He impressed the audience with a regard to his sincerity & many with a sense of his talents. His person is good." Thomas Badger, c 1825
342. SIPGPO_090419_144.JPG: John B. Russwurm, 1799-1851 The son of an American merchant and a Jamaican slave, John B. Russwurm, one of the first blacks to earn a college degree, graduated from Bowdoin College in 1826. The following year, he became co-editor of Freedom's Journal, the first black newspaper published in the United States. "We wish to plead our own cause. Too long have others spoken for us," the editors proclaimed. "Our vices and our degradation are ever arrayed against us, but our virtues are passed by unnoticed." Initially Russwurm opposed the project to colonize freed slaves in Africa, but in 1829, he announced he had become converted to the idea, and shortly emigrated to Monrovia as an agent of the American Colonization Society. In 1836 Russwurm became the first black governor of the Maryland area of Liberia. Unidentified artist, not dated
343. SIPGPO_090419_153.JPG: John Randolph of Roanoke, 1773-1833 John Randolph, the eccentric congressman from Virginia (a seventh-generation descendant of Pocahontas), was the ultimate states'-rights man. "Asking a state to give up part of her sovereignty is like asking a lady to give up part of her chastity," he proclaimed. Randolph's portrait shows him at a time when he stood in opposition to the Warhawks (as he dubbed them) from the South and West, who talked of taking Canada when "some of us were shuddering for safety at home" in fear of a slave insurrection. Randolph once remarked that the greatest orator he had ever heard was a woman. "She was a slave. She was a mother, and her rostrum was the auction block." But he added, "We must concern ourselves with what is, and slavery exists. We must preserve the rights of the States, as guaranteed by the Constitution." John Wesley Jarvis, 1811
344. SIPGPO_090419_161.JPG: John Randolph of Roanoke (detail)
345. SIPGPO_090419_174.JPG: Fisher Ames, 1758-1808 In the election held to pick the Boston area's representative to the first federal House of Representatives, Fisher Ames, a young country lawyer who advocated an effective national government, trounced the old Revolutionary Samuel Adams-a critic of the new Constitution-by a vote of 818 to 521. A cogent writer and a dazzling orator, Ames became a star in the emerging Federalist Party-supporting Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton's financial system, refuting James Madison's arguments against the establishment of a national bank, battling attempts to restrict commerce with England, and standing firm against Jeffersonian Republicans' partiality for revolutionary France. Chronic ill health forced Ames's retirement from Congress in 1797, but through his numerous essays he continued to champion the fundamental right of private property and to warn against the "dangers to American liberty" posed by unfiltered democracy. Gilbert Stuart, c 1807
346. SIPGPO_090419_197.JPG: James Kent, 1763-1847 Until James Kent, retired chancellor of New York, began publication of his Commentaries on American Law in 1826, no one had written about the American legal system as a whole. Kent's landmark four volumes, finished in 1830 (close to the time he underwent the "wonderful irksome" task of sitting for his portrait), examined international law, American constitutional law, the sources of state law, and the law of personal rights and property. A staunch conservative who deplored expanding suffrage beyond property owners, Kent was a champion of individual rights. In response to a temperance committee plea that he set an example by signing an abstinence pledge, he declared: "I never have been drunk, and, by the blessing of God, I never will get drunk, but I have a constitutional privilege to get drunk, and that privilege I will not sign away." Rembrandt Peale, c 1835
347. SIPGPO_090419_209.JPG: Rufus King, 1755-1827 Rufus King was one of the last of the Founding Fathers. A delegate from Massachusetts to the Continental Congress, an active framer of the Constitution, minister to Great Britain, opponent of the War of 1812, senator from New York, and the Federalist Party's last candidate for the presidency (overwhelmingly defeated by James Monroe in 1816), King had a public career that extended through the administrations of the first six presidents of the United States. His portrait was painted in 1819-20, a time when he tried to rouse opposition to the admission of Missouri as a slave state, defending before the Senate "the natural liberty of man and its incompatibility with slavery in any shape." John Quincy Adams recorded: "He spoke with great power, and the great slaveholders . . . gnawed their lips and clenched their fists as they heard him." Gilbert Stuart, 1819-20
348. SIPGPO_090419_219.JPG: Oliver Hazard Perry, 1785-1819: "We have met the enemy and they are ours," came the terse report from twenty-eight-year-old Oliver Hazard Perry after the first major naval victory of the War of 1812. The American navy, with Perry in command of the flagship Lawrence, had met the mighty British squadron at Lake Erie on September 10, 1813, winning control of the lake and paving the way for General William Henry Harrison to move ahead to victory on land. Perry had been assigned the task of building a fleet and assembling a crew, which he described as "a motley set, blacks, Soldiers, and boys." But after the battle he spoke "highly of the bravery and good conduct of the negros, who formed a considerable part of his crew. They seemed to be absolutely insensible to danger." Martin J. Heade, after John Wesley Jarvis, 1855
349. SIPGPO_090419_224.JPG: Oliver Hazard Perry (detail)
350. SIPGPO_090419_234.JPG: Stephen Decatur, 1779-1820 Stephen Decatur first rose to fame in 1804 during the war with the Barbary pirates, when he commanded the daring party that boarded and burned the captured frigate Philadelphia while it lay anchored under the citadel at Tripoli in North Africa. During the War of 1812, he was awarded a congressional gold medal for "gallantry, good conduct, and service." Sent back to the Mediterranean in 1815, Decatur intimidated the dey of Algeria into signing a treaty that ended demands for tribute and brought the Barbary Wars to a final close. Feted upon his return, Decatur offered the toast: "Our country! In her intercourse with foreign nations may she always be in the right; but our country, right or wrong." Mortally wounded in a duel, Decatur died with a sigh "that it was not in his country's cause." Attributed to Charles Bird King after Gilber Stuart, c 1820
351. SIPGPO_090419_256.JPG: John Rutledge, 1739-1800 Educated in the law at London's Inns of Court, John Rutledge of South Carolina had been on the national stage since the Stamp Act protests of 1765. Rutledge played a major role in the framing of the Constitution, but insisted that the Carolinas and Georgia would never be parties to a union that denied protection for their property in slaves. Rutledge was appointed to succeed John Jay as chief justice of the United States, but his intemperate speech against the Jay Treaty with England, along with rumors of insanity, caused his rejection by the Senate. Attributed to John Trumbull, c 1791
352. SIPGPO_090419_268.JPG: Sagoyewatha (Red Jacket), c 1758-1830: Seneca chief Sagoyewatha, a swift runner for the British during the Revolution, was given the name Red Jacket from the scarlet coats he habitually wore. During the War of 1812 he cast his lot with the Americans, but after participating in several battles, including the Battle of Chippewa, he proposed that Indians fighting on both sides of the conflict withdraw from the war, and he went home. Sagoyewatha's claim to celebrity was not as a warrior, but as an orator. An eloquent defender of Indian land claims and culture, he detested Christianity and white civilization. Nonetheless, in his many portraits he proudly wears the peace medal presented to him by President Washington in 1792 when he went to Philadelphia to assert Seneca claims and grievances. Thomas Hicks, after Robert W. Weir, 1868 after 1828 original
353. SIPGPO_090419_278.JPG: Sagoyewatha (Red Jacket) (detail)
354. SIPGPO_090419_287.JPG: Thomas Paine, 1737-1809: "For God's sake, let us come to a final separation," pleaded an anonymous author in a brief pamphlet called "Common Sense," published in Philadelphia on January 9, 1776. "You have it in your power to begin the world all over again." Written by Thomas Paine, a down-at-the-heels immigrant recently arrived from England, this call for an immediate declaration of independence had a stunning effect, rousing spirits within Congress and without. In December 1776, Paine was with the Continental army as it retreated across New Jersey, and George Washington confessed privately that the game was nearly up. "The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country," Paine wrote in an essay that Washington read to the troops, "but he that stands now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman." John Wesley Jarvis, c 1806-07
355. SIPGPO_090419_298.JPG: William Moultrie, 1730-1805 In June 1776, as eight British warships stood poised to put a quick end to the rebellion in the South, William Moultrie, a planter with some experience as a militia captain, was in charge of the hastily built fort on Sullivan's Island in Charles Town harbor. The soft palmetto logs of the fort successfully absorbed bombardment from one hundred guns, whereas Moultrie's men discharged their twenty-five guns with a deliberation that demolished ship rigging and slaughtered enemy sailors. After eleven and a half hours, the British slipped away, giving South Carolina a three-year respite from war. In the background of this portrait -- showing Moultrie, risen to a general in the Continental army -- can be glimpsed the famous fort, renamed in Moultrie's honor. Charles Willson Peale, 1782
356. SIPGPO_090419_312.JPG: Henry Knox, 1750-1806 An overweight twenty-five-year-old Boston bookseller who had taught himself military engineering and artillery out of books, Henry Knox was chief of artillery for the Continental army. In 1775, with Boston under British control, Knox commanded the 300-mile trek to Fort Ticonderoga to bring back by ox sleds the fifty-nine cannons that, mounted on Dorchester Heights, forced the British to evacuate the city. Throughout the seven years of battle, Knox would be by General Washington's side, his close friend and indispensable colleague and later the man the president would pick to be his secretary of war. Knox, painted after he had achieved the three-star rank of major general, displays the badge of the Order of the Society of the Cincinnati, the fraternity of Continental army officers conceived by Knox in 1783. Charles Peale Polk, after Charles Willson Peale, after c 1783 original
357. SIPGPO_090419_323.JPG: Horatio Gates, c 1728-1806 Horatio Gates, a professional soldier in the British army, fought in the French and Indian War and rose to the rank of major before peace put an end to his advancement. In 1772 he sold his commission and purchased a farm in Virginia. Upon the outbreak of war with England, Congress promptly appointed him a brigadier general in the Continental army. Gates was awarded a congressional gold medal for his "brave and successful efforts" to bring about the surrender of General John Burgoyne and his whole army at Saratoga in September 1777. But his reputation was ruined by his ignominious defeat at Camden in 1780. "Was there ever so precipitate a flight," jested Alexander Hamilton about Gates's hasty retreat. "It does admirable credit to the activity of a man at his time of life." James Peale, after Charles WIllson Peale, c 1782
358. SIPGPO_090419_333.JPG: Marquis de Lafayette, 1757-1834: Telling his wife, whom he left in France, that "the welfare of America is ultimately connected with the happiness of all mankind," the nineteen-year-old Marquis de Lafayette arrived to fight for the cause of liberty in early 1777. His moment of glory came during the Yorktown campaign, when he cut off General Cornwallis's path of retreat. An appreciative Virginia legislature commissioned his bust, and Lafayette is seen here in the uniform of a major general in the Continental army, displaying the badge of the Order of the Cincinnati, the fraternal society which united Washington's officers. Unidentified artist, after Jean-Antoine Houdon, 1971 after c 1786 original
359. SIPGPO_090419_349.JPG: Marquis de Lafayette (detail -- Society of the Cincinatti medal)
360. SIPGPO_090419_356.JPG: Marquis de Lafayette
361. SIPGPO_090419_362.JPG: Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, 1746-1825 Charles Cotesworth Pinckney posed for his portrait around 1773 in the red coat (traces of which remain) of the Charles Town colonial militia. By 1775, despite formative years spent in England, Pinckney was an enthusiastic rebel. He asked artist Henry Benbridge to repaint the uniform, showing him as a captain in the second South Carolina regiment raised to go against the British. Pinckney, a friend remarked, had "a passion for glory and Zeal for the cause of his country." Military glory eluded Pinckney-he was fated to participate in a string of defeats, never in victory-but seven years of faithful service won him the rank of brigadier general at the close of the war. Pinckney made his mark not as a soldier, but as a framer of the Constitution, an envoy to revolutionary France, and a Federalist presidential candidate. Henry Benbridge, c 1773
362. SIPGPO_090419_373.JPG: John Witherspoon, 1723-1794 Taking his seat as one of New Jersey's delegates to the Second Continental Congress on June 28, 1776, the Reverend John Witherspoon, president of the College of New Jersey at Princeton, was quick to answer a colleague who thought the country was not ready for independence. "Sir, in my judgment the country is not only ripe for the measure," said Witherspoon in his heavy Scots burr, "but in danger of rotting for the want of it." A month earlier Witherspoon, a Presbyterian minister, had changed his mind about the propriety of the clergy preaching about politics, proclaiming from his pulpit, "I willingly embrace the opportunity of declaring my opinion without any hesitation, that the cause in which America is now in arms, is the cause of justice, of liberty, and of human nature." Rembrandt Peale, after Charles Willson Peale, 1794
363. SIPGPO_090419_382.JPG: Thomas McKean, 1734-1817 One of the most powerful politicians of his generation, Thomas McKean was a multiple officeholder in both Delaware and Pennsylvania, serving in the latter state as chief justice for twenty-two years and as governor for three terms. "The violent raging rebel McKean" -- Delaware's enthusiastic signer of the Declaration of Independence -- also served on the Continental Congress. He was its president when General George Washington marched to Yorktown and, a diligent attendee, was on hand from the first meeting in September 1774 until the preliminary articles of peace with England were signed in 1782. Contentious, vain and hot-tempered-and notorious for shifting his political alliances -- McKean was an easy target for the scurrilous press of the 1790s that taunted, "he beats his wife and she beats him, and when she is drunk she throws his wig in the fire." Attributed to Charles Willson Peale, after 1787
364. SIPGPO_090419_389.JPG: Thomas McKean (detail)
365. SIPGPO_090419_399.JPG: Richard Henry Lee, 1732-1794 On June 7, 1776, it fell to Richard Henry Lee, delegate from Virginia at the Second Continental Congress, to offer the resolution that "these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States." Lee was a tobacco planter and a seasoned member of the Virginia House of Burgesses. An aristocrat with an innate sense of his natural rights, Lee had long fought England's attempts to undermine colonial liberties. From the time he first came to Congress, he had used his powerful oratory to unite his colleagues in resistance to British tyranny. Absent in Virginia (where he was helping with the formation of a new state government) when his resolution was adopted on July 2, Lee later returned to sign the Declaration of Independence. Charles Willson Peale, c 1795-1805
366. SIPGPO_090419_404.JPG: Richard Henry Lee (detail)
367. SIPGPO_090419_414.JPG: Robert Morris, 1734-1806 As the Second Continental Congress moved toward a vote for independence, Robert Morris, one of America's leading merchants, thought that the country was not ready for it. In the interest of colonial unity, Morris absented himself from the Pennsylvania delegation when the vote was taken on July 2, but added his signature to the embossed copy of the Declaration of Independence on August 2. "I am not one of those politicians that run testy when my own plans are not adopted," Morris said. "I think it is the duty of a good citizen to follow when he cannot lead." During the Revolutionary War, Morris did yeoman service, championing the formation of the American navy, striving to keep Washington's army fed and supplied, and, as superintendent of finance, pledging his personal credit as a substitute "for that which the Country Had lost." Robert Edge Pine, c 1785
368. SIPGPO_090419_419.JPG: Robert Morris (detail)
369. SIPGPO_090419_450.JPG: William Carmichael, 1739-1795 Living in England at the outbreak of the American Revolution, the gregarious William Carmichael offered his services to Benjamin Franklin's diplomatic contingent in France. Sent back to America with official dispatches, he was chosen in 1778 to represent Maryland at the Continental Congress. In September 1779, when John Jay was designated minister to Spain, Carmichael accompanied Jay as secretary of the legation. He remained in Madrid as the charge d'affaires, but, having never been granted the title of minister, he resigned his post in 1794. He died in Spain the following year. Unidentified artist, watercolor on ivory, 1770s
370. SIPGPO_090419_451.JPG: Fidelia Marshall Charles Cromwell Ingham, c 1840
371. SIPGPO_090419_480.JPG: William C. Preston: William Preston of South Carolina was one of several senators who nearly derailed the founding of the Smithsonian Institution. James Smithson, illegitimate son of England's Duke of Northumberland, was a noted natural scientist. His considerable fortune went to the United States government in 1835 to establish an institution "for the increase and diffusion of knowledge." Like many of his fellow senators, William Preston argued against accepting Smithson's gift, insisting that the United States should not take such a substantial amount of money from an English aristocrat. Preston was won over, however, and, with President Andrew Jackson's support, Congress voted to accept the bequest from Smithson. George Peter Alexander Healy, 1842
372. SIPGPO_090419_490.JPG: Joel R. Poinsett Ferdinand Pettrich, 1841
373. SIPGPO_090419_503.JPG: Godfrey Frankenstein John Frankenstein, c 1840
374. SIPGPO_090419_509.JPG: Godfrey Frankenstein (detail)
375. SIPGPO_090419_517.JPG: Twentieth-Century: The American Search for Justice: One of the great achievements of this past century was a series of successful campaigns to strike down long-standing segregationist practices and discrimination in American society. While these changes ultimately became enacted in the nation's courts and legislatures, the struggle to secure them was principally fought where intolerance reigned. As such, the nation's polls, buses, schools, and countless other places became battlegrounds in the crusade for equal rights. The figures represented in this gallery were important catalysts during the mid-twentieth century, a period that witnessed historic changes concerning the status of women, Native Americans, gays, and the disabled. Most striking perhaps was the progress achieved by African Americans. Although born in an earlier century, the civil rights struggle reached a crescendo in the 1950s and 1960s. Its triumphs recast the contours of American society and contributed to ongoing campaigns being waged to bring equal opportunity to all Americans.
376. SIPGPO_090419_520.JPG: Tom Wolfe, 1931- Armed with a Ph.D. from Yale University in American studies, Tom Wolfe became a journalist, working for several prominent newspapers and magazines. His articles on such varied topics as stock-car racing, pop culture, and sports figures such as Muhammad Ali soon brought him wide attention -- as well as strong criticism -- for their writing style, known as "New Journalism." Collections of Wolfe's controversial articles from this era included "The Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline Baby" (1965). Subsequent books include "The Right Stuff" (1979), his study of the early years of the American space program, and "From Bauhaus to Our House" (1981), his criticism of modern architecture. His satires, such as "The Bonfire of the Vanities" (1987), continued his social commentary in fictional form. In this portrait, his friend Ray Kinstler depicted him in a white three-piece suit, a style that he first adopted in the 1960s. Everett Raymond Kinstler, 2000
377. SIPGPO_090419_533.JPG: Toni Morrison, 1931- Toni Morrison has been writing about the experiences of African Americans since her first novel, "The Bluest Eye," appeared in 1970. With the publication of each work, both her fan base and critical acclaim grew, and she won the prestigious National Book Critics Circle Award for "Song of Solomon" (1977) and the Pulitzer Prize for "Beloved" (1987). In 1993, Morrison won the Nobel Prize for Literature, the first black woman to become a Nobel laureate. Robert McCurdy begins his painted portraits with a photograph, asking his sitters to address the unseen viewer directly and to make no gestures. He seeks an image that has no implied past or future but exists in the eternal present. McCurdy's goal is to provide a neutral environment in order to maximize the highly personal nature of the encounter between subject and viewer. Robert McCurdy, 2006
378. SIPGPO_090419_542.JPG: Toni Morrison (detail)
379. SIPGPO_090419_554.JPG: Robert Frost, 1874-1963 Robert Frost was one of the few modern American poets who combined critical with popular acclaim. His best poetry was written in the 1920s and 1930s, as America was discovering its national and regional histories. Frost's poems about rural life in New England-"West Running Brook" and "Birches," for example-struck a chord because they were readable, yet imbued with larger questions about human nature, mortality, and man's fate. Frost liked to play the naive rustic, but he was a dedicated craftsman and America's last great formalist poet. Criticizing modern poetry, he said that writing poems without structure was like "playing tennis without a net." Walker Hancock, 1969 cast after 1950 original
380. SIPGPO_090419_564.JPG: A. Philip Randolph, 1889-1979 Asa Philip Randolph believed that the key to African American equality was economics, which led him to develop a number of organized alliances and publications intended to improve the circumstances of blacks in the workforce. His efforts to unite exploited and underpaid black workers eventually resulted in the formation of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters in the mid-1920s, and in his acceptance as a spokesman for civil rights. Later in life, his vacillation between promoting both integration and racial exclusivity engendered disdain from Black Power advocates. Even so, his impact on the American labor movement and the cause of civil rights served to inspire the next generation of leaders, who subscribed to his motto, "Rather we die standing on our feet fighting for rights than to exist upon our knees begging for life." Betsy Graves Reyneau, 1945
381. SIPGPO_090419_579.JPG: James Weldon Johnson, 1871-1938 James Weldon Johnson was a Renaissance man: successful Broadway lyricist, poet, novelist, diplomat, and a key figure in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). In 1900, he collaborated with his musician brother to produce. "Lift Every Voice and Sing," a song so inspirational that it later acquired the subtitle of "The Negro National Anthem." President Theodore Roosevelt appointed Johnson consul to Venezuela and Nicaragua, where he served with great distinction. In the 1920s, Johnson became a key figure in the Harlem Renaissance, known for such works as his anthology, "The Book of American Negro Poetry"; his work on African American religion, "God's Trombones;" and "Black Manhattan," the first history of African Americans in New York City. As chief operating officer of the NAACP during that same decade, he helped formulate the strategy that would later overturn American segregation laws. The background of this portrait recalls "Creation," Johnson's best-known poem in "God's Trombones." Laura Wheeler, 1943
382. SIPGPO_090419_584.JPG: Margaret Sanger
383. SIPGPO_090419_598.JPG: Theodore Dreiser, 1871-1945 When the young journalist Theodore Dreiser published his first novel, Sister Carrie, in 1900, even his publisher was shocked, and the book was virtually banned. Nevertheless, this tale of compromised virtue within a harsh urban environment would ultimately be regarded as a watershed move toward greater frankness in American fiction. Dreiser continued to probe the unvarnished realities of urban life in such works from the 1910s as Jennie Gerhardt, The Titan, and The Genius. But it was not until the appearance of An American Tragedy in 1925 that Dreiser finally received serious attention as one of the most significant realists in American literary history. Nonetheless Dreiser, a lifelong advocate of freedom of expression, battled censorship his whole career. Henry Varnum Poor made this portrait at the time the contentious author had begun to get involved in the politics of radical protest. Henry Varnum Poor, 1933
384. SIPGPO_090419_609.JPG: Eugene V. Debs, 1855-1926 In 1919, labor organizer and Socialist Party of America founder Eugene V. Debs was imprisoned for statements deemed critical of the war effort by Woodrow Wilson's attorney general. After his conviction, Debs voiced his solidarity with those he had always championed: "While there is a lower class, I am in it, while there is a criminal element, I am of it, and where there is a soul in prison, I am not free." Debs never retreated from his goal to transform American capitalism, taking the socialist cause to its high-water mark in the 1912 presidential election, where he received nearly one million votes. Moses Dykaar, 1922
385. SIPGPO_090419_618.JPG: Carrie Chapman Catt, 1859-1947 Carrie Chapman Catt's organizational talents are credited with making the National American Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) an effective force in winning the struggle for women's right to vote. In NAWSA, she worked with such leaders as Susan B. Anthony to win the franchise, state by state, and for a constitutional amendment. Initially condemning America's flood of immigrants, whom she believed were influenced by their paternalistic Old World cultures to vote against women's suffrage, Catt eventually discarded such xenophobic simplifications, founded the International Woman Suffrage Alliance, and became a crusader for internationalism and world peace. In 1900, she replaced Anthony as president of NAWSA and was again elected president in 1915, leading the organization during the successful passage of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920, which guaranteed all American women the right to vote. Mary Eliot Foote, 1927
386. SIPGPO_090419_660.JPG: Clarence Darrow, 1857-1938 One of America's most skilled trial lawyers, Clarence Darrow won national prominence for his successful defense of labor leaders Eugene V. Debs, Thomas I. Kidd, and "Big Bill" Haywood. In 1924, he defended Nathan Leopold and Richard Loeb in a sensational murder trial. Darrow had them plead guilty to avoid a jury trial, and his eloquence saved them from the death penalty. A year later he defended John Thomas Scopes, a Tennessee schoolteacher tried for violating a state statute criminalizing the teaching of evolution. Although Scopes was convicted and fined $100, Darrow turned the trial into a defense of science and enlightened principles. Jo Davidson, cast after a 1929 original
387. SIPGPO_090419_665.JPG: Charles Lindbergh, 1902-1974 On May 20, 1927, Charles Lindbergh took off from New York in his single-engine Spirit of St. Louis. He landed thirty-six hours later at Paris's Le Bourget Aerodrome, greeted by 100,000 cheering Frenchmen. His instant fame in Europe was echoed by millions in the United States, and he was awarded the Congressional Medal of Honor. Later, before World War II, Lindbergh's admiration for German efficiency and industry, his campaign against America's entry into the war, and his anti-Semitism could not fully dim the luster. The battle of the "lone eagle" against the elements and the machine struck a chord in America's psyche that reverberates today. Jo Davidson, 1967 cast after 1939 original
388. SIPGPO_090419_685.JPG: Henry Wallace, 1888-1965 Born into a prosperous Iowa farm family (his grandfather was Theodore Roosevelt's "country life commissioner"; his father, Harding's secretary of agriculture), Wallace was a leader in the fight against low farm prices in the 1920s. As Franklin Roosevelt's secretary of agriculture during the Great Depression, Wallace developed the controversial policy of limiting production, paying farmers to destroy crops and slaughter livestock. Wallace's policies failed to raise prices as high as they had been, but they achieved some success and became a model for later secretaries of agriculture. He became Roosevelt's running-mate in 1940 but was dropped from the ticket in 1944. Jo Davidson, 1942
389. SIPGPO_090419_694.JPG: Harry Hopkins, 1890-1946 Of those joining President Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal administration in 1933, Harry Hopkins was easily the most adventuresome in devising ways to alleviate the Great Depression. This slender dynamo of a man first served as FDR's chief of a massive emergency relief for the unemployed. By 1935, he was heading the Works Progress Administration, charged with putting the nation's unemployed to work on government-funded projects. Critics accused him of careless waste. Hopkins, however, never wavered in his commitment to easing the Depression, claiming that his detractors were simply "too... dumb to understand" the importance of his work. Reuben Nakian, 1934
390. SIPGPO_090419_703.JPG: Harry Hopkins
391. SIPGPO_090419_711.JPG: Robert Penn Warren, 1905-1989 Born Guthrie [hey!], Kentucky Robert Penn Warren is one of the most gifted and prolific American authors of the latter twentieth century; his Pulitzer Prize-winning novel, "All the King's Men" (1946) is one of the most significant books in American literature. Educated at Vanderbilt, Warren first gained attention as one of the "Agrarians," a group of conservative southern writers who wanted to slow social change, especially in race relations. Warren was too progressive for the group and subsequent recanted his early support for racial segregation, becoming an important voice for integration. Warren made the South the theme of his writings, which were voluminous. A major novelist, he was also an important poet, one whose combination of the vernacular and modernism achieved the fusion of the old and the new, which he had attempted to find -- unsuccessfully -- with the Agrarians. He was twice poet laureate of the United States. Conrad A. Albrizio, 1935
392. SIPGPO_090419_718.JPG: Ernie Pyle, 1900-1945 During World War II, John Steinbeck noted that there were two conflicts being reported in the press. The one getting the most attention was about grand strategy and generals, and the other was the war of the common soldier. No journalist told that latter story more poignantly than Ernie Pyle. His chronicling of the enlisted man's discomforts, terrors, and heroism touched civilians and GIs alike. By 1944, he was as much a war hero as any combat medal winner. When Pyle died covering the taking of the Pacific island le Shima, soldiers marked the spot with a sign declaring that they had "lost a buddy". Jo Davidson, 1944
393. SIPGPO_090419_733.JPG: Charles R. Drew, 1904-1950 In 1940, with German bombers dropping their deadly cargoes daily on British cities, England stood in desperate need of blood supplies for its thousands of wounded civilians. To fill this shortage, the British turned to the African American physician Charles Drew, America's recognized pioneer in the preservation and storage of blood. Drew expeditiously organized the Blood Transfusion Association, and the crisis in war-torn England's hospitals was met. A year later, Drew became the medical director of the American Red Cross's blood-donor project, and it was largely because of his expertise that this enterprise saved many American lives during the war. Yet when the Red Cross ordered that all non-Caucasian blood be stored separately, Drew resigned, stating that there was no scientific or medical reasons for classifying blood by race. Today, Drew is universally deemed the "Father of the Blood Bank." Betsy Graves Reyneau, 1953
394. SIPGPO_090425_006.JPG: John Dewey, 1859-1952 "I believe that education is the fundamental method of social progress and reform," stated philosopher and educator John Dewey. Perhaps his greatest work was "Democracy and Education" (1916), which laid the groundwork for progressive education in America. At a time when children learned mainly by rote, Dewey challenged educators to focus on a child's individual needs and rally for more participatory classrooms. According to Dewey, education, democracy, and individualism were not only intertwined, they relied upon each other for the creation of a productive society. Through education, Dewey believed that social concerns could be addressed and society as a whole better understood. Jacob Epstein, 1927
395. SIPGPO_090425_012.JPG: John Dewey
396. SIPGPO_090425_032.JPG: John Muir, 1938-1914 For Scottish-born naturalist John Muir, the unchecked exploitation of America's natural resources in the late nineteenth century was a tragedy. With his gifts for repartee, descriptive writing, and summarizing the essence of issues, he played a decisive role in protecting such areas of the American West as the Yosemite Valley, the Grand Canyon, and the Petrified Forest. Founder of the Sierra Club, active lobbyist, and author of numerous articles and books such as "Our National Parks' (1901), Muir became America's leading conservationist. During Theodore Roosevelt's presidency, he led the effort to preserve some 148 million acres of forest. This portrait's pensive quality reflects Muir's life-long preference for solitude. Of the urban environment, he once said, "Often I thought I would like to explore the city, if, like a lot of wild hills and valleys, it was cleared of inhabitants." Orlando Rouland, 1919
397. SIPGPO_090425_041.JPG: William Jennings Bryan, 1860-1925 At the turn of the twentieth century, America's great populist, William Jennings Bryan, was a perennial presidential candidate and a crusader for such common causes as the regulation of big business trusts, an income tax favorable to the poor, and women's suffrage. His "cross of gold" speech at the 1896 Democratic convention, in which he advocated a monetary system more in line with the needs of the lower class, earned him the sobriquet "Great Commoner." When war started in Europe in 1914, Bryan, as President Woodrow Wilson's secretary of state, advocated for America's neutrality as the best hope for mediating that "cosmic nightmare." After the sinking of the Lusitania by Germany in 1915, the United States verged increasingly toward war. Bryan resigned when it became clear that Wilson no longer thought moral exhortation was a sufficient means for dealing with world realities. Irving Ramsay Wiles, 1917
398. SIPGPO_090425_046.JPG: William Jennings Bryan (detail)
399. SIPGPO_090425_060.JPG: William Jennings Bryan (detail)
400. SIPGPO_090425_067.JPG: Marianne Moore, 1887-1972 Author of more than a dozen volumes of verse, Marianne Moore received virtually every major literary award -- including the Pulitzer Prize and the National Book Award -- that the United States had to offer. Moore was acclaimed by her contemporaries, including TS Eliot, who cited the "original sensibility and alert intelligence" of her poetry. Using unconventional metrical schemes and focusing on such no-nonsense virtues as courage, loyalty, and patience, her innovative and exquisitely crafted verse secured her a leading position among modernist writers. This portrait by Marguerite Zorach, "Marianne Moore and Her Mother" -- redolent with the bright fauvist colors and faceted cubist planes that the artist picked up from four years in Paris -- records Moore at an important moment in her rise to fame. It suggests the influence of Moore's mother, who lived with her daughter and edited her poetry, as well as the red-haired dynamism of Moore herself. Marguerite Zorach, 1925
401. SIPGPO_090425_083.JPG: Marianne Moore (detail)
402. SIPGPO_090425_087.JPG: Jim Thorpe, 1888-1953 Of mixed Native American and white ancestry, Jim Thorpe was raised as a Sac and Fox and attended the Carlisle (Pennsylvania) Indian School, where in 1907 his all-around athletic skills began to be noticed. Thorpe excelled at football, baseball, and track and field, and in 1912 he won the intercollegiate ballroom dancing championship. At the 1912 Olympic Games in Stockholm, Sweden, he easily won gold medals in the pentathlon and the decathlon. Months later, it was discovered that Thorpe had previously played professional baseball and should have been ineligible to compete. Consequently, his medals were revoked. But in 1983, the International Olympic Committee reversed its decision, partly due to an earlier technicality, and Thorpe's medals were reinstated. In 1999, Thorpe was ranked third on the Associated Press's list of greatest athletes of the twentieth century, behind Babe Ruth and Michael Jordan. Underwood & Underwood, c 1913
403. SIPGPO_090425_098.JPG: Rudolph Valentino, 1895-1926 In 1921 silent film actor Rudolph Valentino vaulted from bit player to matinee idol with his performances in two hugely popular melodramas. Appearing first as a dashing but ill-fated Argentine in The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse and then as an exotic desert prince in The Sheik, Valentino set pulses racing with his smoldering love scenes and swashbuckling fight sequences. Critics praised him, and fans packed movie houses to see Hollywood's darkly handsome sex symbol. In subsequent films, including Blood and Sand (1922), Valentino burnished his reputation as a star of unrivaled box office popularity. His untimely death in 1926 only enhanced his legend, and Valentino is still regarded as one of the silver screen's greatest lovers. In this publicity image by Paramount Studios' photographer Donald Biddle Keyes, Valentino appears costumed for his role as Ahmed Ben Hassan in The Sheik. Donald Biddle Keyes, 1921
404. SIPGPO_090425_105.JPG: Douglas MacArthur, 1880-1964 Commander of American land forces in the Pacific at the outbreak of World War II, General Douglas MacArthur suffered the worst defeat of his career in the spring of 1942, when he was forced to flee the Philippines in the wake of Japanese invasion. Uttering on his arrival in Australia his famous words, "I shall return," MacArthur now faced the task of repelling Japan's drive for dominion in the southwest Pacific. His success in that effort, combined with his own genius for self-promotion in the press, made him one of the most popular heroes of the war back in civilian America. By the time he made good his promise to retake the Philippines in spring 1945, his reputation had reached legendary proportions, and the following September, he was chosen to preside over Japan's final surrender. Howard Chandler Christy, 1952?
405. SIPGPO_090425_109.JPG: Douglas MacArthur (detail)
406. SIPGPO_090425_122.JPG: Ben Shahn, 1898-1969 Ben Shahn, a painter, photographer, and graphic artist, infused his works with a passion that made them both works of art and political statements. In 1932 he created a famous series on the Italian-American anarchists Sacco and Vanzetti, whose trial was widely criticized for its denial of due process. Shahn, a staunch New Dealer, painted murals and did other commissions for the government arts and public works programs. In this photograph by Ronny Jaques, Shahn, a strong supporter of labor, is shown with his poster, commissioned by the Congress of Industrial Organizations, urging workers to register to vote. Shahn's later work became more abstract and allegorical, although still politically charged, and in his last years he turned to religious themes, creating illustrated versions of books from scripture and the Torah. Ronny Jaques, c 1945
407. SIPGPO_090425_131.JPG: John Steinbeck, 1902-1968 In politics, mention of the Great Depression evokes Franklin Roosevelt's New Deal; in painting, it summons up images of federally funded WPA murals depicting the nation's workforce. And in American letters, the work most synonymous with those hard times is The Grapes of Wrath, John Steinbeck's best-selling novel portraying the spirit-breaking poverty that overtook so much of the country's rural economy in the wake of prolonged drought and falling crop prices. When the book appeared in 1939, Steinbeck had already tasted popular success with his two novels Tortilla Flat and Of Mice and Men. Grapes of Wrath, however, earned him an acclaim that few American writers have enjoyed. No recent novel, one critic said at its publication, was "better calculated to awaken the humanity of others." In 1962, Steinbeck's literary accomplishments earned him the Nobel Prize for Literature. Sonya Noskowiak, 1935
408. SIPGPO_090425_143.JPG: Nathaniel Bowditch, 1773-1838: Nathaniel Bowditch's New Practical Navigator, published in 1802, could be easily understood by sailors with limited education and became, along with the Bible, an essential part of every seaman's gear. The self-taught Bowditch was the leading American scientist during the first three decades of the nineteenth century. As a man of business, he played an additional role in the economic growth of the country, directing fortunes made at sea into investments in New England textile mills. Bowditch's bust rests on the first volume of his translation and annotation of Pierre-Simon de Laplace's Celestial Mechanics, a study of physical astronomy. Robert Ball Hughes, cast from the 1838-39 original
409. SIPGPO_090425_154.JPG: Benjamin Silliman, 1779-1864 Appointed Yale College's first professor of chemistry and natural history in 1802, Benjamin Silliman (trained in the law) went to Philadelphia, London, and Edinburgh for exposure to the world of science. Over the next fifty years, Silliman became renowned as an educator, influential as the founder and editor of the American Journal of Science and a popular national figure on the lecture circuit, entertaining audiences with drawings and demonstrations and providing assurances that discoveries in science need not threaten biblical teachings. Silliman's portrait was painted in New York, where he was engaged in the fatiguing work of raising money to keep the finest mineral collection in America at Yale. He posed before breakfast -- at six o'clock in the morning -- for one and a half hours, and recorded that John Trumbull, his friend and uncle by marriage, "painted very rapidly." John Trumbull, 1825
410. SIPGPO_090425_165.JPG: Paul Laurence Dunbar, 1872-1906 Regarded by Frederick Douglass as "one of the sweetest songsters his race has produced," Paul Laurence Dunbar became the first African American author to be able to support himself solely through his writings. Although he wrote three novels and many short stories, it was his poetry, written in both standard English and African American dialect, that first caught the attention of a national audience and allowed him to leave his job as an elevator operator. While many readers gravitated towards those dialect poems that presented a sunny vision of African American life, Dunbar also probed with great eloquence the harsh world of racial segregation and discrimination. His example inspired not only the next generation of African American writers, but also William McKnight Farrow, who like Dunbar grew up in Dayton before moving to Chicago to pursue a career as an artist. William McKnight Farrow, 1934
411. SIPGPO_090425_197.JPG: James Gibbons (detail)
412. SIPGPO_090425_222.JPG: Black Hawk, 1767-1838 The push westward, led by scouts like Daniel Boone or Davy Crockett and followed by settlers moving across the Appalachians, ran up against organized Indian resistance. By 1804, the Sac people had ceded their land to the government, but Black Hawk stirred his tribe to reclaim its territory. He led a long resistance to the United States, from fighting in the War of 1812, when he sided with the British, to his instigation of what is known as the Black Hawk War in 1832. Black Hawk brought on the conflict as a last-ditch effort to resist President Jackson's aggressive policy of Indian removal. He said, the cause of our making war... is known to all white men. They ought to be ashamed of it." After a campaign of five months, Black Hawk was defeated at the Battle of Bad Axe. George Catlin, c 1835
413. SIPGPO_090425_233.JPG: Susan B. Anthony, 1820-1906 Attaining a "more perfect" union required that each citizen in antebellum society strive for moral and physical perfection. Susan B. Anthony began her reform career campaigning against drink but soon realized that women could have only a limited impact on the culture if they did not attain political equality with men. After being forbidden from speaking at a temperance rally because of her gender, Anthony became a wholehearted activist for women's suffrage. For Anthony, just as slavery had divided the Union against itself, so the nation could not survive as long as full political participation was denied to half the population. Adelaide Johnson, 1972 cast after 1892 original
414. SIPGPO_090425_244.JPG: Susan B. Anthony
415. SIPGPO_090425_250.JPG: Susan B. Anthony
416. SIPGPO_090425_260.JPG: Harriet Beecher Stowe, 1811-1896 Excluded from public professions, cultivated women sought other avenues for their talents. From discussing the issues of the day in informal salon gatherings, it was a short step for women to become writers, especially since the antebellum period saw a burgeoning number of magazines catering to women. So Harriet Beecher Stowe started a career that made her one of the most popular novelists of the nineteenth century. Stowe's place in American history was sealed with her novel "Uncle Tom's Cabin" (1851-52), which sold 300,000 copies in its first year. "Uncle Tom's Cabin" was a reform novel; Stowe was motivated to write it by the Fugitive Slave Law and the effect that slavery had in destroying the African American family. No more effective charge could be made in a nation that, both North and South, revered the family as the foundation of society. Alanson Fisher, 1853
417. SIPGPO_090425_263.JPG: Harriet Beecher Stowe (detail)
418. SIPGPO_090425_272.JPG: Mrs. William T. Evans and Her Son Henry O. Walker, 1895
419. SIPGPO_090425_283.JPG: Don Jose Mas Ferrer Jose Campeche, c 1795
420. SIPGPO_090425_299.JPG: San Juan Nepomuceno (Saint John Nepomuk) The halo of five stars around the head of San Juan Nepomuceno, the patron saint of confessors, spells out TACUI, Latin for "I did not speak." The letters lead the viewer's eye to the figure of Christ, the object of the saint's devotion. This painting reminded priests of their obligation to remain silent regarding what they heard from those they absolved. Jose Campeche, a descendant of freed slaves, made a career for himself as an artist and architect, using colonial, European, and folk traditions to create distinctively Puerto Rican artwork at the close of the eighteenth-century. Jose Campeche, c 1798
421. SIPGPO_090425_306.JPG: Mrs. George Watson Mrs. Watson, the wife of a wealthy Boston merchant, wears a daring low-cut gown of luscious satin and white lace and holds a porcelain vase that echoes the contours of her figure. The yards of expensive fabric and silk ribbons in the costume testified to George Watson's success as an importer of European goods, as did the fact that he could afford to commission a portrait from Boston's foremost painter. Mrs. Watson showed herself to colonial society as a fashionable English matron, but her direct gaze suggests the grit and character of a new American society that would emerge within ten years. John Singleton Copley, 1765
422. SIPGPO_090425_315.JPG: Dr. Gustavus Brown Gustavus Hesselius, 1742
423. SIPGPO_090425_326.JPG: Mrs. Gustavus Brown Gustavus Hesselius, 1742
424. SIPGPO_090425_343.JPG: Mrs. Richard Alsop Ralph Earl, 1792
425. SIPGPO_090425_354.JPG: Mrs. Joseph Wright Ralph Earl, 1792
426. SIPGPO_090425_366.JPG: The Wiley Family William Williams, 1771
427. SIPGPO_090425_373.JPG: The Wiley Family (detail)
428. SIPGPO_090425_376.JPG: The Wiley Family (detail)
429. SIPGPO_090425_379.JPG: The Wiley Family (detail)
430. SIPGPO_090425_387.JPG: Thomas Hopkinson Thomas Hopkinson wears a full-bottomed wig and a sword, and he stands before a balustrade and a grove of pruned cypresses. But these European props do not tell the whole story. Hopkinson was also an ambitious citizen of a new society interested in new discoveries. He studied law in England but carved out a career for himself in Philadelphia, where he attained the rank of judge and, when he was not in court, helped Benjamin Franklin in his experiments with electricity. Robert Feke, 1746
431. SIPGPO_090425_393.JPG: Portrait of Lucy Parry, Wife of Admiral Perry John Wollaston, 1745-49
432. SIPGPO_090425_405.JPG: Margaretta Willoughby Pierrepont Augustus Saint-Gaudens, 1874
433. SIPGPO_090425_413.JPG: Margaretta Willoughby Pierrepont
434. SIPGPO_090425_420.JPG: Sophie Hunter Colston William R. Leigh, 1896
435. SIPGPO_090425_429.JPG: Sophie Hunter Colston (detail)
436. SIPGPO_090426_15.JPG: Donald W. Reynolds William Behrends, 2006
437. SIPGPO_090517_21.JPG: Patience Wright, 1725-1786 Patience Wright, a Quaker widow from Bordentown New Jersey, looked to support her children by modeling in wax to produce lifelike figures of celebrities, exhibiting them with success in Philadelphia and New York. After a fire destroyed much of her collection, she went to England in 1772, where her artistic skill and engaging bluntness won her a following that included the king and queen -- George and Charlotte she called them. Proclaiming that "Women are always useful in grand events," Wright fancied herself, when war broke out, to be an American spy, and sent intelligence to Benjamin Franklin in Paris. Wright is seen here working on "a busto" under her apron. Her full-length effigy of William Pitt, Earl of Chatham, still exists and is on view at Westminster Abbey. Unidentified artist, c. 1782
438. SIPGPO_090517_41.JPG: Andrew Oliver, 1706-1774 Although Andrew Oliver, a Massachusetts colonial officeholder of nearly thirty years' standing, regarded the Stamp Act as a "public Misfortune," he agreed to accept the office of collector of stamps. After a mob swarmed over his garden, violated his house, and threatened his life, Oliver gave the impression that he would resign his post. When he did not, his effigy was hung from the Liberty Tree, the site of patriotic protest. While standing under the tree in the rain, Oliver was forced to swear that he would take no measures for enforcing an act "which is so grievous to the People." John Singleton Copley, c, 1758
439. SIPGPO_090517_50.JPG: Joseph Galloway, 1731-1803 Joseph Galloway, the powerful longtime Speaker of the Pennsylvania Assembly, believed that colonial grievances (which he freely admitted having) should be addressed through orderly petition rather than by clamor in the streets. Appalled by the War for Independence, Galloway stood with the mother country. In late 1778 he departed his native land, leaving his wife, Grace, behind to protest the confiscation of family property. This miniature was painted in England, where Galloway spent the rest of his life. Attributed to Thomas Day, c. 1778
440. SIPGPO_090517_64.JPG: Thomas Hancock, 1703-1764 Among the merchant princes of colonial Massachusetts was Thomas Hancock. Hancock started out as an apprentice bookbinder, became a bookseller and publisher, ventured into the import-export business, and did particularly well in supplying British troops during the French and Indian War. His fortune (as well as this miniature, painted about the time he became a member of the Massachusetts Council) was inherited by his nephew, John Hancock, who made good use of it to advance the colonies on the road to independence. John Singleton Copley, c. 1758
441. SIPGPO_090518_07.JPG: Rosa Parks, 1913-2005 The modern civil rights movement in the United States began on a public bus in Montgomery, Alabama, on December 1, 1955. African American seamstress Rosa Parks refused the driver's request to give up her seat in the first row of the "colored" section to a white passenger: "I knew someone had to take the first step and I made up my mind not to move." Sculptor Marshall D. Rumbaugh depicts Parks as she is being escorted to jail by the arresting officers. In protest against the unconstitutionality of Alabama's laws requiring segregated seating on public conveyances, the Montgomery black community, led by twenty-seven-year-old clergyman Martin Luther King Jr., organized a bus boycott that kept some 17,000 African Americans off the buses. The boycott lasted 382 days, until December 13, 1956, when the U.S. Supreme Court ruled such segregation laws as unconstitutional. Marshall D. Rumbaugh, 1983
442. SIPGPO_090518_17.JPG: The Return to Aztlan: Cesar Chavez, 1927-1993: Encouraged by the civil rights movement, labor organizer Cesar Chavez began in the early 1960s to protest the unfair treatment of farm workers in California and the Southwest, the majority of whom were Mexican or Mexican American. In 1963, he and Dolores Huerta founded the United Farm Workers of America (UFW), which started a boycott of California grapes in 1965 as part of a movement to improve working conditions for field laborers. This eventually resulted in a national boycott of grapes by many sympathetic Americans. This painting links modern-era activists Chavez and Huerta to historic figures Miguel Hidalgo and Jose Maria Morelos (leaders in Mexico's War of Independence) and Emiliano Zapata (Mexican revolutionary and champion of agrarian reform), who shared their Mexican heritage and a commitment to justice. The painting's title refers both to the mythical homeland of the Aztec people and to the cultural realm of Greater Mexico. Alfredo Arregiun, 2005
443. SIPGPO_090518_28.JPG: The Return to Aztlan (detail)
444. SIPGPO_090518_34.JPG: The Return to Aztlan (detail)
445. SIPGPO_090518_37.JPG: The Return to Aztlan (detail)
446. SIPGPO_090518_45.JPG: The Return to Aztlan (detail)
447. SIPGPO_090518_48.JPG: The Return to Aztlan (detail)
448. SIPGPO_090518_55.JPG: Sandra Day O'Connor, born 1930: In 1981, President Ronald Reagan fulfilled a campaign promise to appoint the first woman to the U.S. Supreme Court by nominating Arizona lawyer and judge Sandra Day O'Connor to a seat on the bench. After announcing the nomination, Reagan wrote in his diary, "Already the flak is starting and from my own supporters. . . . I think that she'll make a good justice." O'Connor served from 1981 to her retirement in 2006 and left a reputation as a conscientious associate justice, one inclined toward narrowly based judgments rendered on a case-by-case basis, thereby avoiding setting sweeping precedents. A lifelong Republican, O'Connor came to the court after a career in the law and politics in both Arizona and California, where she had attended Stanford University. Her career, and her appointment to the Court, signaled the growing political importance of the Sun Belt after World War II. This likeness ran on the cover of Time shortly after Reagan announced O'Connor's Supreme Court nomination. Erlado Carugati, 1981
449. SIPGPO_090518_69.JPG: Martin Luther King, Jr. 1929-1968: n the story of the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, the figure who came to personify the substantial gains made toward eliminating racial discrimination was Atlanta preacher Martin Luther King Jr. A key strategist in such events as the Montgomery, Alabama, bus boycott and the nonviolent protests in Birmingham and Washington, D.C., he is remembered for his impassioned eloquence: "I have a dream that one day . . . this great nation will rise up and live out the true meaning of its creed: 'We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal.'" For his recent efforts in leading the yearlong transit boycott in Montgomery, Time magazine selected King for its cover of February 18, 1957. King would make the cover twice more, as Man of the Year for 1963, and in 1965. Boris Chaliapin, 1957
450. SIPGPO_090711_012.JPG: Michael Jackson, 1958-2009 Born Gary, Indiana Michael Jackson rocketed to fame-first with his brothers, the Jackson 5, whose first four singles (including "ABC" and "I Want You Back") topped the charts in 1970-and then through solo albums. Jackson was clearly one of the biggest pop stars of the 1980s, and his best-selling album Thriller (1982) was a huge popular and critical success, winning an unprecedented eight Grammy Awards. In 1984, when Time commissioned Andy Warhol to make Jackson's portrait, the slightly built dancer and singer was at the height of his fame, and Warhol was the perfect choice to transform Jackson into a pop celebrity icon. The then-twenty-six-year-old star is preserved by Warhol, even though this image has been replaced in the public mind by his notorious masklike visage. Andy Warhol 1984 (Time magazine cover March 19, 1984) NOTE: When the Portrait Gallery hung this after his death, the last line of this description was changed to the following: The then-twenty-six-year-old star is preserved by Warhol, even though this image has been replaced in the public mind by a dramatically different visage.
451. SIPGPO_090711_024.JPG: Daguerreotype camera: This quarter-plate camera with rosewood veneer is typical of those used by American daguerreotypists during the 1850s. Exposure times for portraits made with this camera would have likely ranged from five to fifteen seconds, depending upon the size of daguerreotype plate employed and the amount of light present in the studio.
452. SIPGPO_090711_035.JPG: George Washington, 1732-1799 George Washington died nearly forty years before the introduction of the daguerreian process, so there are no original daguerreotypes of America's first president. Daguerreotypes were made, however, of Gilbert Stuart's famous unfinished painting of Washington, which was acquired in 1831 by the Boston Athenaeum and is now jointly owned by the National Portrait Gallery and the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. This daguerreotype of the "Athenaeum" portrait is the work of pioneering daguerreotypist John A. Whipple. It predates by several years daguerreotypes of the same Washington portrait made by Whipple's rivals -- fellow Boston-based daguerrians Albert Sands Southworth and Josiah Johnson Hewes. John Adams Whipple, after Gilbert Stuart, 1847
453. SIPGPO_090711_044.JPG: Peter Cooper, 1791-1883 with his wife Sarah, daughter (Sarah) Amelia, and son Edward Inventor and millionaire industrialist Peter Cooper was one of the outstanding American businessmen of the nineteenth century. After making his initial fortune in the glue business, Cooper revolutionized the nation's railroad industry by designing and building the first successful American steam locomotive (1830). A generous philanthropist who viewed wealth as a trust to be used "for the education and uplifting of the common people," he founded New York City's Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art (1857) -- an innovative institution that offered free vocational courses to adults with the desire but not the means to obtain an education. Unidentified daguerreotypist, c. 1850
454. SIPGPO_090711_056.JPG: George Henry Thomas, 1816-1870 George Henry Thomas earned fame as "the rock of Chickamauga" for tenaciously holding his ground during a near-rout of Union forces on that Tennessee [sic] battlefield in September 1863. A southern-born officer who chose to remain with the Union army during the Civil War, Thomas graduated from West Point in 1840 and later saw action in the Mexican War, where he served with distinction at the battles of Monterrey and Buena Vista. His Civil War career was marked not only by his memorable stand at Chickamauga, but by his vital contributions to the Union victories at Chattanooga and Nashville. Mathew B. Brady, 1853
455. SIPGPO_090711_063.JPG: Samuel Cooper, 1798-1876 A career officer who attained the rank of colonel (1852) and served as adjutant general of the U.S. Army, Samuel Cooper forged a close friendship with Jefferson Davis during the latter's tenure as U.S. secretary of war. In March 1861, Cooper resigned his commission and offered his services to the Confederacy and to its new president, Davis, who appointed him adjutant and inspector general of the Confederate army. Greatly prized for his administrative abilities, Cooper became the Confederacy's highest-ranking army officer. When the Civil War ended, he insured the preservation of Confederate War Department records by turning them over to federal authorities. Joseph White, c. 1856
456. SIPGPO_090711_078.JPG: Robert Toombs, 1810-1885 A dominant figure in Georgia politics until after the Civil War, Robert Toombs began his career as a moderate who favored the Union's preservation. Elected to Congress and then the Senate, Toombs increasingly sided with southern nationalists as the 1850s progressed. In January 1861, he resigned his Senate seat and soon joined fellow secessionists convening in Montgomery, Alabama, to launch the Confederacy. Upon Jefferson Davis's election as the Confederate president, Toombs famously proclaimed, "The man and the hour have met." Following a brief tenure as the rebel nation's secretary of state, Toombs joined the Confederate army, serving as a general until 1863. Jesse H. Whitehurst, c. 1850
457. SIPGPO_090711_089.JPG: Jefferson Davis, 1808-1889 Destined to become the Confederacy's only president, Jefferson Davis entered politics in 1845 when Mississippians elected him to Congress. After relinquishing his seat to fight in the Mexican War, Davis resumed his public career with service in the U.S. Senate (1847-51; 1857-61) and as Franklin Peirce's secretary of war (1853-57). A champion of southern rights and an outspoken protector of slavery, he nonetheless wished to avoid the breakup of the Union. Davis supported attempts to forestall secession after Lincoln's election, but abandoned the effort when Mississippi seceded. He reluctantly accepted the Confederate presidency, having hoped for a command in the rebel army instead. Unidentified daguerreotypist, c. 1858
458. SIPGPO_090711_112.JPG: Sandra Day O'Connor, born 1930 In 1981, President Ronald Reagan fulfilled a campaign promise to appoint the first woman to the U.S. Supreme Court by nominating Arizona lawyer and judge Sandra Day O'Connor to a seat on the bench. After announcing the nomination, Reagan wrote in his diary, "Already the flak is starting and from my own supporters... I think that she'll make a good justice." O'Connor served from 1981 to her retirement in 2006 and left a reputation as a conscientious associate justice, one inclined toward narrowly based judgments rendered on a case-by-case basis, thereby avoiding setting sweeping precedents. A lifelong Republican, O'Connor came to the court after a career in the law and politics in both Arizona and California. This portrait, along with twenty-four others by an equal number of artists, was created on October 10, 2006, when O'Connor agreed to be the model for a long-standing informal painting group that meets weekly in New York City. Jean Marcellino, 2006
459. SIPGPO_090808_02.JPG: Walter Cronkite, 1916-2009 From 1962 to 1981, millions of Americans tuned in to Walter Cronkite on CBS for their nightly news. Many described him as "the most trusted man in America" and agreed with his description of himself as a "news presenter, a news broadcaster... not a commentator or analyst." It was a trust even presidents respected. When Cronkite visited Vietnam in 1968 and called the conflict a stalemate, President Lyndon Johnson told an advisor, "If I've lost Cronkite, I've lost middle America." Cronkite seemed to lose his composure and objectivity only when he reported on American space flights, of which he was the nation's biggest booster, and upon President Kennedy's assassination. Based on a color photograph, this portrait by Robert Vickrey appeared on the cover of Time magazine on October 14, 1966. Afterward, Mrs. Cronkite complained to editors at Time about the lack of color in her husband's "sparkling blue eyes," and Vickrey "repainted the eyes very, very blue," as seen here. Robert Vickrey Watercolor and pencil on board, 1966 Gift of Time magazine
460. SIPGPO_090808_16.JPG: Katharine Hepburn's Best Actress Academy Award for "Morning Glory" (1933) Over the course of her acting career, Katharine Hepburn won four Best Actress Academy Awards, and she was honored first for her role in "Morning Glory." This statuette is a legend in itself. Although the origin of the term "Oscar" is debatable, one of its earliest uses is from an article by entertainment columnist Sidney Skolsky. Reporting on the ceremony and stumped on the spelling of "statuette," the term that was commonly used to refer to the award, Skolsky instead wrote that Hepburn "won the Oscar for her performance as Eva Lovelace in Morning Glory." --- Katharine Hepburn's Best Actress Academy Awards for "Guess Who's Coming to Dinner?" (1967), "The Lion in Winter" (1968), and "On Golden Pond" (1981). The Oscar statuette was designed in 1927 by MGM art director Cedric Gibbons and sculpted by George Stanley. The figure stands on a film reel with five spokes, signifying the original branches of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences: actors, directors, producers, technicians, and writers. The pedestal was raised in 1945, giving the Oscar a height of 13-1/2 inches; it weighs 8-1/2 pounds. Rather than its original gold-plated bronze, it is now composed of the allow britannia and coated in twenty-four-karat gold.
461. SIPGPO_090808_62.JPG: Katharine Hepburn, 1907-2003 Katharine Hepburn sported a highly stylized personality and headstrong independence that announced a new kind of female presence in Hollywood's heyday. She was an instant screen success, winning the first of her record four Best Actress Oscars in 1933 for "Morning Glory" and making such popular films as "Little Women" (1933). But subsequent choices like Sylvia Scarlett baffled her audience, and by 1938 she was labeled "box-office poison." "The Philadelphia Story" (1940) revived her career, and she never again faltered. She co-starred with Humphrey Bogart in "The African Queen" (1951) and partnered in nine films with Spencer Tracy, winning an Oscar for "Guess Who's Coming To Dinner" (1967). She also won Oscars for "The Lion in Winter" (1967) and "On Golden Pond" (1981). In 1990, she received a Kennedy Center Honors award. This portrait by her friend Everett Raymond Kinstler was said to be her favorite. Everett Raymond Kinstler Oil on canvas, 1982
462. SIPGPO_090829_01.JPG: Edward M. Kennedy, 1932-2009 Elected to the United States Senate in 1962, Edward Kennedy owed his early success to his close identification with his elder brothers, President John F. Kennedy and Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy. But ultimately, despite personal travails and controversy, Kennedy became a power in his own right and established himself as one of the Senate's major voices of liberalism. He also evolved into an adroit political strategist, capable of exerting influence even when his own Democratic Party was not in the majority. Kennedy became best known in recent years for his role in the effort to achieve reforms and improvements in the nation's health care system. His death leaves vacant a Senate seat that the Kennedys have held for nearly sixty years. Andy Warhol's silkscreened portrait was created as a campaign fund-raiser for Kennedy's unsuccessful bid for presidency in 1980. It suggests the intensity and glamour of politics by enhancing Kennedy's features with thin red and blue lines and diamond rust. Andy Warhol, 1980 --- Original text: Elected to the United States Senate in 1962, Edward Kennedy owed his early success to his close identification with his elder brothers, President John F. Kennedy, whose Senate term he completed, and Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy. Praising their commitment to public service, he acknowledged, "I'm very proud of that association." Kennedy built on this legacy when he sought the presidency in 1980. Andy Warhol's silkscreened portrait, created as a campaign fund-raiser, plays off the colors of the American flag and suggests the glamour of politics by enhancing the candidate's features with thin red and blue lines and diamond dust. Although Kennedy lost the Democratic nomination to Jimmy Carter, whom Warhol had portrayed four years earlier, the long-serving senator has become an influential leader in his party, addressing such issues as health care, education, and immigration reform.
463. SIPGPO_090829_26.JPG: When the United States declared its independence in 1776, different peoples had lived on its lands for centuries. Christopher Columbus's arrival in America in 1492 began a new era of exploration, settlement, and exchange in what Europeans saw as a new world. The country's origins, therefore, do not begin at a specific date, nor do they involve one particular group of people. At first, most immigrants came from Western Europe in search of new riches, new freedoms, and new beginnings. As early as 1619, the importation of slaves from Africa began. In subsequent centuries, as individuals from around the globe have settled here, the country's diversity has grown further. In many respects, the United States is always beginning anew. Here in this exhibition, you will meet those who shaped their times, from the colonial era through the Revolution and the Civil War to the end of the nineteenth century. Each contributed in extraordinary ways to the country's continuing reinvention.
464. SIPGPO_091116_08.JPG: Marilyn Horne, born 1934 Mezzo-soprano Marilyn Horne is celebrated as one of the most remarkable voices of the twentieth century. A brilliant interpreter, she is a master of Bellini and Rossini, as well as Handel and Bach. She launched her show business career at age four by singing at a rally for Franklin Roosevelt, but her professional start came in 1954, when she dubbed the singing voice of Dorothy Dandridge in the film "Carmen Jones". Horne's 1970 debut at the Metropolitan Opera was as Adalgisa in Bellini's "Norma" (depicted here). With soprano Joan Sutherland, she ushered in a new golden age of bel canto opera, notably in "Norma", "Semiramide", and "Anna Bolena." Revered also for her concert and recital singing, she founded the Marilyn Horne Foundation in 1994 to train rising young stars in the vocal art tradition. John Foote Oil on canvas, 1971
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2009 photos: Overnight trips this year: Niagara Falls, NY, New York City, Civil War Trust conferences in Gettysburg, PA and Springfield, IL, and my 4th consecutive San Diego Comic-Con trip (including Los Angeles, Yosemite, Death Valley, Kings Canyon, Joshua Tree, etc). Ego strokes: I had a picture of a Lincoln-Obama cupcake sculpture published in Civil War Times and WUSA-9, the local CBS affiliate, ran a quick piece on me. A picture that I took at the annual Abraham Lincoln Symposium appeared in the National Archives' "Prologue" magazine. I became a volunteer with the Smithsonian American Art Museum. Equipment this year: I mostly used the Fuji S100fs. I've also got a Nikon D90 and a newer Fuji -- the S200EHX -- both of which are nice but I still prefer the flexibility of the Fuji. Number of photos taken this year: 417,000.
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