BGuthrie Photos: CA -- San Diego -- Balboa Park -- San Diego Museum of Man

CA -- San Diego -- Balboa Park -- San Diego Museum of Man:

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Copyrights: All pictures were taken by amateur photographer Bruce Guthrie (me!) who retains copyright on them. Free for non-commercial use with attribution. See the [Creative Commons] definition of what this means. "Photos (c) Bruce Guthrie" is fine for attribution. (Commercial use folks including AI scrapers can of course contact me.) Feel free to use in publications and pages with attribution but you don't have permission to sell the photos themselves. A free copy of any printed publication using any photographs is requested. Descriptive text, if any, is from a mixture of sources, quite frequently from signs at the location or from official web sites; copyrights, if any, are retained by their original owners.

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[109] SDMOM_090722_582.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?) $Healing: A considerable degree of success in trephination surgeries is proven by the fact that many of the skulls show some degree of healing in the wound. In the San Diego Museum of Man collection, more than half of the specimens show signs of advanced healing. This may be an exceptional proportion for aboriginal American trephination, since the region in Peru where most of the specimens were found is one where the procedure was especially well developed. Trephined openings with no healing reveal a sharply cut edge or an abraded edge with no signs of change in the bone from such causes as inflammation or infection. Partial healing may show in bony changes such as new or fibrous bone. Scratch marks, probably from incising the scalp, may still be apparent, as well as fracture lines near the opening. In a well-healed trephination, the bone has consolidated and the diploe (the porous layer between the inner and outer tables) is no longer apparent, as resorption has taken place. There has been speculation about the possibility that Peruvian surgeons placed some type of plate over the trephine wound in order to protect the exposed brain. This may have been done in rare instances, but it was not common. In small trephinations, regeneration of bone would probably have at least partially filled the opening in time. However, bone will not bridge the gap of large openings, so once the scalp has healed over the hole, a "soft spot" will remain with the individual.$	[110] SDMOM_090722_587.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[111] SDMOM_090722_591.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
[112] SDMOM_090722_593.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[113] SDMOM_090722_599.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?) $Trephination: Illness can be a major aspect of human life, and methods of curing illnesses are apparently as old as human culture. All peoples, both ancient and recent, have used natural and/or supernatural healing methods to deal with illnesses. Trephining, or removing a piece of bone from the skull, is the oldest surgical procedure known from antiquity. The practice has gathered intense interest because it represents an early form of cranial surgery performed well before the advent of modern medicine. Many trephinations are associated with skull fractures, suggesting that the treatment of head injury and its complications may have been a major motivation for the practice. Evidence also shows that ancient people may have believed trephination would cure various ailments such as epileptic seizures, migraines, and mental disorders. Some populations practiced trephination in order to release evil spirits from an individual. Some individuals even kept the bone that was trephinated and wore it as a talisman or charm to keep away evil spirits.$	[114] SDMOM_090722_600.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
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[121] SDMOM_090722_626.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?) $Why Surgery? The reason for performing trephination -- a difficult operation to remove a section of the skull -- has been the subject of speculation. There is considerable evidence that many of the operations in Peruvian practice were performed for the therapeutic purpose of removing a bone fragment that had been driven below the surface of the skull vault as the result of an injury. Many such injuries presumably occurred during hand-to-hand fighting with weapons that often had sharp projecting points, such as sling stones, stone-headed war clubs, and star maces. Depressed fractures that resulted from the use of such weapons may have created intracranial pressure that led to illness. The Peruvians may have felt the conditions were relieved by cutting free and removing the portion of the skull where the impact occurred. Other fractures, not necessarily depressed, may have caused blood clots and pressure on the brain, resulting in headaches. In some instances, the operative area was in the region of larger fracture that could have been the result of a blow with a heavy club or perhaps a fall unconnected with warfare. Magico-therapeutic reasons -- those related to beliefs -- are sometimes given as an alternative explanation for skull surgery performed on individuals with headaches, delirium, epilepsy, and various mental disorders. Another purpose of skull surgery may have been ritual surgical practice on cadavers. It is quite possible trephination was an attempt at healing through supernatural means. Some early European trephinations were apparently done in order to obtain the bone disk that was removed from the skull. The resulting bone amulet, called a roundel, was thought to have some magical power or supernatural symbolism. This purpose, however, has not been indicated in the New World trephinations. It is possible that some of the South American operations were based on the theory that a malicious spiritual entity had taken possession of the patient and was causing his or her illness. Opening the skull was considered a means of releasing the disease-causing force. Also, since the agency causing the illness was sometimes thought to reside in the blood, the release of blood from the body was often a curative procedure. Since the trephination likely involved a considerable flow of blood, this might have been why the skull was opened. There may have been a number of reasons for trephining in aboriginal surgical practice, varying from natural to supernatural, depending on the features of the illness and the personality of the surgeon.$	[122] SDMOM_090722_628.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[123] SDMOM_090722_632.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
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[136] SDMOM_090722_701.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)	[137] SDMOM_090722_706.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?) $The Headless Mummy: This tomb holds the mummified body of an Egyptian male from the Ptolemaic Period (332 to 30 BC), resting in the lower half of a wooden coffin. During the mummification process, the linen bandages were secured with a gummy resin that has since become hard and black. Radiographs show that the arms were placed over the body and that there are broken ribs and fractured long bones. These breaks may be due to rough handling after mummification. Sometime in the past, vandals stole the mummy's head and toes. The tomb includes objects that would have been used by the deceased in the afterlife. There are small glazed figures, called ushabtis, which were placed in the tomb to work for the deceased. Ideally, there would be 365 of them, one for every day of the year. Jars, a plate, and spindles are included for use in the afterlife. The replica of a boat model shows the mummy being transported to the sacred cemetery at Abydos on the west side of the Nile River. Boat models were common in Egyptian tombs. Thirty-five boats of various types and sized [sic] were found in King Tutankhamon's tomb, all pointing to the west. Mummy on loan from the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County.$	[138] SDMOM_090722_709.JPG Medium (Email) (Bigger?)
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Specific picture descriptions: Photos above with "i" icons next to the bracketed sequence numbers (e.g. "[1] ") are described as follows:
1. SDMOM_090722_041.JPG: Timeline of Ancient Cultures from Northern Mexico, Mesoamerica, & Western South America The interesting ones to me were -- Inca 1200 - 1533CE Maya 1000BCE - 1673CE Aztec 1100-1521CE What do BCE and CE mean? BCE means Before the Common Era and CE means Common Era. The terms are often used, especially by the scientific community, to replace the traditional, but more religious BC and AD designations which translate to the times before and after the birth of Christ. BCE refers to the years before the Roman calendar year 1 and CE refers to the years starting with and continuing after the year 1.
2. SDMOM_090722_099.JPG: Head Binding: In ancient Peru, two of the most common ways to change the shape of the head were annular binding and front-to-back binding. The latter was achieved by placing a padded board in the front and another in the back and then tightening them on the sides. Both methods would need to be started in infancy. Reasons for changing the shape of the head may have included status and group identification. An unintentional flattening occurred from placing the baby on a cradleboard.
3. SDMOM_090722_121.JPG: (On the left) Stela D (south and east sides): Stela D was erected and dedicated by the Quirigua rule K'ak'Tiliw on February 19, AD 766 to commemorate the ending of an important time period in the calendar and the creation of a new time period. The sculpture portrait of the ruler on the south side shows him dressed in elaborate ceremonial costume with a tall feather headdress, jade ear flares and jade necklace. He holds the royal shield of warfare. The imagery on the shield, although somewhat eroded, appears to be that of the Skeletal War Serpent. The total figure of the rule represents the three levels of the universe. At the top of the feather headdress is an image of Principal Bird Deity in the heavens. The stone base upon which he stands contains an upside-down mask of the Maize God who resides with the gods in the Underworld. The body of the ruler, clad in a loincloth with imagery of the World Tree, represents the earthly realm.
4. SDMOM_090722_125.JPG: Zoomorph P (north side): Dedicated on September 15, AD 795, this intricately carved boulder is an extraordinary example of the beauty and skill found in the bas-relief sculpture of the late Maya Classic Period. It is called a "zoomorph" because it is shaped as a mythical animal, the Cosmic Monster, a waterbeast that swims in the primordial sea of the Underworld.. The numerous symbols of aquatic imagery indicate that it also represents the thirds stone of the Creation, the Water Throne Stone. Scrolls from the mouth of the crocodilian monster surround small images of the Lightning God, Chaak. Several mythological animals pour water over the throne. Waterlily leaves with flowers adorn the snout of the monster. The ruler Kuch Xib' dedicated the zoomorph to commemorate the ending of an important time period in the Maya calendar. He is seated in the maw of the monster dressed in ceremonial costume holding a serpent scepter with the image of K'awil, the god of royal authority. At the top of his feather headdress is an image of the patron god of the Maya mouth Pax. He wears the jade jewelry and earflares of royalty. Kuch Xib' is seated at an opening into the center of the sacred Mountain of Creation from where the gods and rulers derive their power. Hieroglyphic Inscription: Surrounding the image of the Quirigua ruler are 14 cartouches (glyphs in oval frames) which mention the establishment of a ruling dynasty at the Maya site of Copan in AD 425. Members of this elite dynasty founded by Yax K'uk'Mo', rules both Copan and the nearby smaller site of Quirigua for nearly 400 years during times of political alliance and independence. The hieroglyphic text flows from one cartouche to the next around the eyes and mouth of the monster from left to right and lists the names of early rulers at Quirigua and those deified in mythology. It concludes with reference to recent history by mentioning K'ak'Tiliw, the powerful king who preceded Kuch Xib'.
5. SDMOM_090722_153.JPG: Stela C (east and north sides): The elaborate sculpture that appears on many monuments in the Plaza designed by the Great 8th century ruler K'ak'Tiliw contains portraits of him in ceremonial dress. An exception if the profile view of the patron god of the month Pax in which the stela was dedicated, depicted here on the north side of Stela C. The god is shown with toe down and heel up, dancing in sacred ceremony and holding in his hands the twisted cords of heaven, which connect mankind to the gods. These cords also represent the pathway in the sky through which the sun, moon, and planets travel. A canopy of heaven extends over his head. He stands on a stone platform with an inscription of a sacred date that mentions the Hero Twins of mythology, sons of the Maize God. The imagery that surrounds the god refers to the Maya belief in sacrifice, rebirth, and the regeneration of life. The Creation Myth (east side): When the ruler K'ak'Tiliw dedicated this stela in ritual ceremony on December 29, AD 775, he added a unique contribution to his ambitious building program. The hieroglyphic text on the east side of the stela contains the most extensive account of the Creation myth of the universe written during the Maya Classic Period. The hieroglyphic text begins with the date for the Creation of this fourth cycle of time on August 13, 3114 BC using the Maya units for past calendar time expressed in five glyph blocks. It is followed by the month and day name for this date, 4 Ajaw 8 Kumk'u. On that day, Six Sky Lord commanded ancient gods to set up three stones to create the Cosmic Hearth, seen by the Maya as a triangle of stars in the constellation of Orion. The first was called the Jaguar Throne Stone, the second, the Serpent Throne Stone; and the third, the Water Throne Stone. Then Six Sky Lord raised up the lying-down sky to create the universe.
6. SDMOM_090722_157.JPG: Zoomorph B (south side): This giant boulder carved in the shape of a supernatural Cosmic Monster floats in the primordial sea of the Underworld that surrounds and lies beneath the Earth. The masterful carving in deep bas-relief contains intricate symbols indicating that the crocodilian monster also represents the third stone of Creation, the Water Throne Stone. It is a symbolic throne for the ruler K'ak'Tiliw, who erected and dedicated the monument on December 2, AD 780. A human head with small beard, typical of the ruler K'ak'Tiliw, is seen emerging from the jaws of the monster. He is dressed in ceremonial costume with a feather headdress and the jade jewelry worn by royalty. The rulers' source of power comes from within the earth, the mythological Mountain of Creation where the gods derive their strength. In the night sky, the Maya saw the Cosmic Monster in the Milky Way when it lies in an east-west orientation. Modern astronomers confirm that the Milky Way was positioned overhead in this direction at the time of the dedication. Hieroglyphic Inscription: East Side: -- skipped since I didn't photograph that side
7. SDMOM_090722_177.JPG: Stela C (south side): The sculpture portrait of K'ak'Tiliw, the powerful 8th century ruler of Quirigua, shows him dressed in the ceremonial costume of warfare. The small profile heads at the top of his feather headdress are marks of the Lightning God, Chaak, often associated with warfare. At the sides of the headdress are small triangular banners of warfare. The ruler wears jade earflares and the jade ornaments of kinds. He holds a jaguar throne scepter symbolizing the first of the three throne stones of Creation, mentioned in the hieroglyphic text on the east side of the stela. His headdress includes the triple-knot symbols for the rites of bloodletting. ...
8. SDMOM_090722_187.JPG: Stela K (east side): Stela K, July 24 AD 805, is the last dated free-standing monument erected at Quirigua. It reflects the decline and final end of the political and economic structure of the Classic Maya cities. In his sculpture portrait on the east side of the stela, the ruler K'ak'Jolow is dressed in ceremonial costume wearing a large feather headdress decorated with the mask of an important deity. He holds a double-headed serpent bar from whose jaws emerge small K'awil god, symbols of supreme royal power and lineage. On the west side (not visible in the Museum), the ruler, K'ak Jolow is shown dressed in the costume of a royal warrior. He holds a war shield in his left hand and a K'awil scepter, the image of the patron god of royal power and lineage, in his right hand. His feather headdress is adorned with the masks of two deities. He wears the jewelry of kings: jade earflares with sun symbol, a trilobe jade pectoral, and ornate decoration at the hells of his sandals.
9. SDMOM_090722_220.JPG: Offering Plate: This plate is decorated with spikes representing the spiny trunk of the young ceiba tree. Said to be recovered from Lake Amatitlan, it was probably an offering made during annual pilgrimages.
10. SDMOM_090722_280.JPG: Stela D: Quirigua Monument 4: North and West Sides: Stela D is an historic marker from the reign of the 8th century ruler of Quirigua, K'ak'Tiliw. Erected and dedicated by the ruler on February 19, AD 766 to honor the ending of an important time period in the calendar, the text also refers to the celebration of his 40th anniversary in reign that took place two years before in AD 764. During his sixty-year reign, K'ak'Tiliw successfully established independence for Quirigua from the larger site of Copan and launched an ambitious building and sculpture program that earned his place as a major patron of the arts. The ruler is shown wearing a tall feather headdress, jade earflares and jade necklace. His elaborate ceremonial costume represents the three layers of the Maya universe. He stands on a base with a large mask of the Venus God of the Underworld. At the top of his feather headdress is a mask of the moon shown as a skull, indicating its dark phase at the time of the dedication. In his left hand he holds a scepter with the image of K'awil, patron god of royal authority and lineage. His loincloth, carries symbols of the World Tree.
11. SDMOM_090722_286.JPG: Zoomorph P: Quirigua Monument 16: West Side: The bas-relief sculpture of this large boulder, called a zoomorph, contains intricately carved symbols placed over the entire body of a crocodilian monster. This Cosmic Monster of mythology floats in the primordial sea of the Underworld. The monument was erected and dedicated by the Maya ruler Kuch X'ib' on September 15, AD 795 to honor the ending of a five-year time period in the Maya calendar. It is also intended to represent the third stone of the Cosmic Hearth, the Water Throne Stone, as well as a symbolic throne for the ruler. This side of the monument clearly illustrates the versatility and skill of the sculptors at Quirigua in the late Maya Classic Period at the end of the 8th century, Covering the entire side of the monster's body in rich and detailed imagery symbols for the planets, constellations, and mythological animals pouring water on the Water Throne Stone. Twisted cords of heaven frame symbols of astronomy.
12. SDMOM_090722_324.JPG: Altar L: The overall design of this unique rhyolite disc is the Maya day sign for Ajaw, contained in a large cartouche or frame. The Maya word for Lord is also Ajaw. The original use of the disc is not known since it was moved from its original location and later used as an altar table. It may have been a ball court marker or the marker for a new building at Quirigua. The style appears to be that of local artisans, unlike the more skilled carvings of Copan, but similar to the Giant Ajaws found at Caracol. Altar L was dedicated on June 2, AD 653, by the Lord of Quirigua, seen seated cross-legged in the center of the disc, wearing jade ornaments and a headdress adorned with the symbol for Venus. A pair of glyphs beneath him states that he danced in ceremonial ritual, and the glyphs to the right of the figure give his name as K'awil Yo'at, Divine Lord of Quirigua.
13. SDMOM_090722_328.JPG: Altar M: With the muzzle of a jaguar, the teeth and hooded eyes of a reptile, and the spotted ear of a deer, this supernatural animal head represents the hieroglyphic name for a sacred location or a ritual structure. At the back of the beast's head is a short hieroglyphic text with the date with the powerful rule of Quirigua, K'ak'Tiliw, set up the monument, September 154, AD 734. It is the earliest known example of the extensive sculpture program that the king would sponsor during his lengthy reign. Several titles accompany the name of the ruler, among them that of a five-year ballplayer, although its significance to royal ritual is not made clear. The original location of the monument is unknown since it had been moved before the time of its first discovery.
14. SDMOM_090722_336.JPG: Lintel 3: Towering above the trees of the rain forest are the famous pyramids of Tikal. The tallest is Temple IV, rising 215 feet above the plaza, although the opposing Temples I and II in the Great Plaza are widely recognized symbols of Mayan architecture. The panel is a reproduction of an intricately carved wooden lintel placed above an interior doorway in Temple IV, a magnificent example of Maya Classic Period artistic skill. The wood is from the Zapote (or Sapodilla) tree, which is dense and heavy and resistant to decay. The sap is collected from chicle used in chewing gum and latex. The original wood lintel is now in the Museum fur Volkerkunde, Basel, Switzerland. The scene depicts the richly costumed ruler, Yik'in Kan K'awil, seated beneath a gigantic, double-headed feathered serpent, the Sky-Snake. The mouth of the snake head on the left disgorges an image of God K'awil, patron of royal power and lineage. The ruler holds a spear and a shield with the sign for death. In his feathered headdress appears a jade mosaic skull. Behind his ear is a large sign for the star Venus, an important symbol of warfare. Topping the headdress is a mask of Itzam Ye, Celestial Bird Deity of magic. The hieroglyphic text on the left and right sides mentions the dedication of Temple IV in AD 741 and the important military victory by Tikal over an ally of El Peru in AD 743. The ruler, Yik'in Kan K'awil, reinforces his legitimacy by mentioning that he is the son of the great ruler Hasaw Kan K'awil and Lady 12 Macaw. In the victorious battle, the palanquin or ceremonial litter of the enemy was captured. Effigies of a ruler's patron gods were carried on palanquins into battle to offer supreme power and protection. In this scene, Yik'in Kan K'awil is shown seated upon the recently captured palanquin of El Peru after destroying the images of their patron gods. Yik'in Kan K'awil not only succeeded in his military campaigns against enemies allied with the superpower Calakmul, long the main rival of Tikal, but also completed a most ambitious building program during his reign in 8th century Tikal, Temple IV was a crowning achievement.
15. SDMOM_090722_340.JPG: Zoomorph P: Dedicated on September 15, AD 795, this intricately carved boulder is an extraordinary example of the beauty and skill found in the bas-relief sculpture of the late Maya Classic Period. It is called a "zoomorph" because it is shaped as a mythical animal, the Cosmic Monster, a waterbeast that swims in the primordial sea of the Underworld. The numerous symbols of aquatic imagery indicate that is also represents the third stone of Creation, the Water Throne Stone. Scrolls from the mouth of the crocodilian monster surround small images of the Lightning God, Chaak. Several mythological animals pour water over the throne. Waterlily leaves with flowers adorn the snout of the monster. The ruler Kuch Xib' dedicated the zoomorph to commemorate the ending of an important time period in the Maya calendar. He is seated in the maw of the monster dressed in ceremonial costume holding a serpent scepter with an image of K'awil, the god of royal authority. At the top of his feather headdress is an image of the patron god of the Maya month Pax. He wears the jade jewelry and earflares of royalty. Kuch Xib' is seated at an opening into the center of the sacred Mountain of Creation from where the gods and rulers derive their power.
16. SDMOM_090722_346.JPG: The Art of Andean Retablos: Religion, Tradition, and Social Commentary: Introduction: Welcome to this exhibition about the art of Andean retablos. As an anthropology museum, the San Diego Museum of Man shares information about human development, creativity, and artistic expression. Through the exquisite art form of the retablo, we can glimpse into the lives of the indigenous peoples of highland Peru. From religion to tradition and to socio-political violence, retablos are more than decorative boxes: they are vehicles for social commentary and an important link to the past. A majority of the retablos in this exhibition are from master retablo-maker Nicario Jimenez Quispe, who learned the art of retablo-making from is father and grandfather. From the traditional cajon sanmarcos, Jimenez Quispe's work has evolved into social commentary pieces on border issues and civil rights. Most of our retablos were donated to the Museum by Tom and Adele Davies, who collected Jimenez Quispe's work for decades. We are extremely fortunate to have such retablos in our permanent collection. Please enjoy the artistry and detail of these amazing objects. Each one is handsome and shows the evolution of an art form that came to Peru in the sixteenth century. Indigenous artists have taken the retablo and made it their own. What is a Retablo? The retablo originated in a popular religious art form -- the capilla de santero -- during the Romanesque period (circa 1000 to 1137 CE). The capillo de santero is a portable altar with images of saints. The word retablo comes from the Latin retra-tabulum, which means "behind the table or altar." The first retablos consisted of three-dimensional statues or images within a decorated frame placed behind church altars in Spain. In the Old World, there were used as portable altars for travelers and carried into battle by warriors during the Crusades. Early retablos often featured Saint James, the patron saint in the war against the Moors. The retablo art form varies. In Mexico, for example, saint images are painted on copper and tin, in New Mexico on wood. Retablos are used in many ways -- as personal altars, ex-votos (votive offerings of thanks), devotional images, and sacred objects with magical functions. Andean retablos are distinguished from their counterparts by material, shape, and color. Traditionally they are made of a shallow wooden rectangular box with double doors attached by leather hinges. On the top of the box is placed a triangular piece called a crown. Brightly painted inside and out, the retablos usually contain two levels with three-dimensional figurines. The figures were initially sculpted in alabaster, but as demand increased figures were made of paste, a mixture of boiled potato and Plaster of Paris.
17. SDMOM_090722_422.JPG: 1915 Reconstructions of Ancient Humans: Ten sculptured reconstructions of human evolution, as known in 1915, were displayed at the Panama-California Exposition in San Diego. They were modeled by the Belgian sculptor Louis Mascre, under the direction of Professor A. Rutot of the Natural History Museum of Brussels. The busts were sculpted in Belgium and then shipped to America during the opening days of World War I. This may be the only complete set in existence, as some of the original molds were destroyed during the war. Perceptions of Early Hominids: In 1915, the public perceived early humans as fantasy figures or "cave men" who walked with a stopped and shuffling fate. Only a few human fossils had been discovered, and Mascre's reconstruction of their heads and faces was based on fragmentary skeletons. For example, he worked from a skull cap to reconstruct Java Man, and Heidelberg Man was based on a lower jaw. The weapons, tools, and ornaments seen with the busts are reproductions of those found with the bones or are appropriate for the cultural period. At the time, the customary view of human evolution was a linear one, where hominids were thought to have evolved in a single-line progression. Researchers believed that only one species of ancient humans lived at a time. Today, we recognize that human evolution was, and is, much more complex. Several species existed at the same time; some became extinct, and others flourishing for thousands of years. We now have nearly a century of scientific discoveries upon which to base our view of early humans. The 1915 Panama-California Exposition: In 1909, San Diego announced it would celebrate the opening of the Panama Canal in 1915 with a world's fair. The county's population was only 61,000, but with the first deep-water port on the West Coast north of Mexico, many thought the publicity would increase local business and population. San Diego was the smallest city to propose a world's fair, and six months after it presented its plans, San Francisco, a city with over 400,000 people, announced a federally approved, official exposition. The citizens of San Diego did not waver and courageously continued toward their goal. San Francisco planned a commercial and industrial fair; thus San Diego proposed an artistic and educational exposition. The 1400-acre City Park, future site of the Exposition, was renamed Balboa Park in 1910 and a magnificent city of Spanish Colonial architecture arose. The Smithsonian Connection: The Exposition committee assigned Edgar L. Hewett, of the School of American Archeology, to put together a comprehensive exhibition called "The Story of Man Through the Ages." He enlisted the help of the Smithsonian Institution and two of its staff members: William H. Holmes for the ethnographic and archeological content, and Alex Hrdlicka for the physical anthropology component. Hrdlicka was instructed to mount the largest physical anthropology exhibit ever assembled. Hrdlicka sent field workers to Africa, the Ukraine, Alaska, and the Philippines, which he traveled to Peru, Europe, Mongolia, and Siberia to collect skeletal material, casts, and photographs for the exhibition. The result was a five-room gallery in which one of the rooms was devoted entirely to human evolution. Its centerpiece was a series of ten large plaster reconstructions of early fossil humans. The Exposition was a great success and was extended through 1916. The San Diego Museum Association (which later became the Museum of man) was incorporated and became the owner of the collections.
18. SDMOM_090722_467.JPG: Lucy
19. SDMOM_090722_487.JPG: Neandertal fossil casting
20. SDMOM_090722_495.JPG: Cro-magnon man figure. Also Venus figurine found at Des Rideaux at Lespugue, Haute Garonne, France in 1922.
21. SDMOM_090722_502.JPG: Kid's box where you play interactively with fossils
22. SDMOM_090722_570.JPG: Trephination with no signs of healing
23. SDMOM_090722_582.JPG: Healing: A considerable degree of success in trephination surgeries is proven by the fact that many of the skulls show some degree of healing in the wound. In the San Diego Museum of Man collection, more than half of the specimens show signs of advanced healing. This may be an exceptional proportion for aboriginal American trephination, since the region in Peru where most of the specimens were found is one where the procedure was especially well developed. Trephined openings with no healing reveal a sharply cut edge or an abraded edge with no signs of change in the bone from such causes as inflammation or infection. Partial healing may show in bony changes such as new or fibrous bone. Scratch marks, probably from incising the scalp, may still be apparent, as well as fracture lines near the opening. In a well-healed trephination, the bone has consolidated and the diploe (the porous layer between the inner and outer tables) is no longer apparent, as resorption has taken place. There has been speculation about the possibility that Peruvian surgeons placed some type of plate over the trephine wound in order to protect the exposed brain. This may have been done in rare instances, but it was not common. In small trephinations, regeneration of bone would probably have at least partially filled the opening in time. However, bone will not bridge the gap of large openings, so once the scalp has healed over the hole, a "soft spot" will remain with the individual.
24. SDMOM_090722_593.JPG: Peruvian Techniques: There were several methods used by Peruvians for opening the skull. The most frequent was by cutting the skull with four grooves, releasing a four-sided section of bone which was elevated and removed. There were a number of modifications of this method. Sometimes the grooves were curved rather than straight. Also, considerable bone was at times removed by scraping before the cuts were made. A rare method was drilling a number of small holes through the bone in a circular pattern and breaking through the walls separating the holes. This method, although used only occasionally in primitive trephinations, most closely resembles the technique used for larger trephinations in modern surgery. The South American surgeon of pre-Columbian times apparently used instruments of both stone and metal. Sharp flakes of obsidian (volcanic glass) were quite efficient cutting and scraping implements. Chisels, tweezers, and knives of copper or bronze were also made and apparently used in trephinations. A classic tool, the tumi, was in the shape of a half circular blade formed at the end of a handle that was either flat or at times sculptured with an animal or human effigy. The drilling instrument used -- whether a rotating drill or a bow drill -- is unknown. Bandages and gauze as well as tourniquets made of closely woven llama wool have been discovered and are associated with Peruvian trephination. It is not known whether the patient was given any form of anesthetic during the operation. Coca, which has local anesthetic properties and which was native to the Andes, would have been used to decrease the pain of cutting through the scalp where the sensitive nerves in the head would be severed. Strong beer, chicha, made form corn, and a large variety of medicinal and hallucinogenic plants also existed. Speculations abound as to anesthesia, suturing, use of protective plates, and other practices. One protective plate of gold over the operative site has been reported, and several reports about the use of pieces of gourd are found in the literature. Tourniquet-type cords were also reported, but whether they were used to control bleeding is unknown.
25. SDMOM_090722_599.JPG: Trephination: Illness can be a major aspect of human life, and methods of curing illnesses are apparently as old as human culture. All peoples, both ancient and recent, have used natural and/or supernatural healing methods to deal with illnesses. Trephining, or removing a piece of bone from the skull, is the oldest surgical procedure known from antiquity. The practice has gathered intense interest because it represents an early form of cranial surgery performed well before the advent of modern medicine. Many trephinations are associated with skull fractures, suggesting that the treatment of head injury and its complications may have been a major motivation for the practice. Evidence also shows that ancient people may have believed trephination would cure various ailments such as epileptic seizures, migraines, and mental disorders. Some populations practiced trephination in order to release evil spirits from an individual. Some individuals even kept the bone that was trephinated and wore it as a talisman or charm to keep away evil spirits.
26. SDMOM_090722_600.JPG: Hrdlicka Collection: Ales Hrdlicka, born in Eastern Bohemia in 1869, became a curator in the Department of Physical Anthropology at the Smithsonian Institution, and is known as America's "Father of Physical Anthropology." In 1910 and 1913, Dr. Hrdlicka, with the permission of the Peruvian government, collected thousands of skulls and bones from vandalized prehistoric cemeteries in Peru and brought them to the United States. Most of the osteological material was taken to the Smithsonian Institution, but nearly one thousand specimens were brought to San Diego for the 1915 Panama-California Exposition as part of the most comprehensive physical anthropology exhibition ever shown. This assemblage included examples of rare bone pathologies, injuries, and a series of seventy trephinated skulls. The collection became the core of the physical anthropology holdings at the San Diego Museum of Man.
27. SDMOM_090722_619.JPG: Skull Stories: The Art of Ancient Surgery
28. SDMOM_090722_620.JPG: Techniques of Surgery: Four basic techniques were used by prehistoric surgeons: scraping, grooving, drilling, and cutting. The scraping technique consisted of gradually scraping the bone with a sharp or abrasive stone until the outer, middle, and lower layers of the skull were worn away, exposing the membrane that covers the brain. This technique produced a hole with a sloping edge. The grooving technique was accomplished using a sharp stone point to carve a circular piece of bone from the skull. The groove was drawn and redrawn until the central piece of bone was loose. The drilling technique had two steps. First, a circle of holes was drilled with a sharp instrument. This required great skill, as the holes had to be drilled to just the right depth so that the membrane covering the brain was not punctured. Then the tiny bridges of bone between the holes were cut with a stone knife and the disc of bone was pried out to expose the membrane covering the brain. This method was rare -- probably because it was difficult to control drill depth and pressure. The cutting technique usually consisted of four straight cuts at right angles (tic-tac-toe style) to remove a rectangular piece of bone. The cuts were made with a sharp stone knife and were deeper in the center than on either end. Variations included openings with five or more sides and curved cuts which opened large areas. In modern surgical procedures, trephination is used to treat epidural and subdural hematomas, and for surgical access for other neurosurgical procedures. Modern surgeons use the term craniotomy for this procedure, and the removed piece of skull is usually replaced as soon as possible.
29. SDMOM_090722_626.JPG: Why Surgery? The reason for performing trephination -- a difficult operation to remove a section of the skull -- has been the subject of speculation. There is considerable evidence that many of the operations in Peruvian practice were performed for the therapeutic purpose of removing a bone fragment that had been driven below the surface of the skull vault as the result of an injury. Many such injuries presumably occurred during hand-to-hand fighting with weapons that often had sharp projecting points, such as sling stones, stone-headed war clubs, and star maces. Depressed fractures that resulted from the use of such weapons may have created intracranial pressure that led to illness. The Peruvians may have felt the conditions were relieved by cutting free and removing the portion of the skull where the impact occurred. Other fractures, not necessarily depressed, may have caused blood clots and pressure on the brain, resulting in headaches. In some instances, the operative area was in the region of larger fracture that could have been the result of a blow with a heavy club or perhaps a fall unconnected with warfare. Magico-therapeutic reasons -- those related to beliefs -- are sometimes given as an alternative explanation for skull surgery performed on individuals with headaches, delirium, epilepsy, and various mental disorders. Another purpose of skull surgery may have been ritual surgical practice on cadavers. It is quite possible trephination was an attempt at healing through supernatural means. Some early European trephinations were apparently done in order to obtain the bone disk that was removed from the skull. The resulting bone amulet, called a roundel, was thought to have some magical power or supernatural symbolism. This purpose, however, has not been indicated in the New World trephinations. It is possible that some of the South American operations were based on the theory that a malicious spiritual entity had taken possession of the patient and was causing his or her illness. Opening the skull was considered a means of releasing the disease-causing force. Also, since the agency causing the illness was sometimes thought to reside in the blood, the release of blood from the body was often a curative procedure. Since the trephination likely involved a considerable flow of blood, this might have been why the skull was opened. There may have been a number of reasons for trephining in aboriginal surgical practice, varying from natural to supernatural, depending on the features of the illness and the personality of the surgeon.
30. SDMOM_090722_628.JPG: Tools of trephination
31. SDMOM_090722_632.JPG: Modern and prehistoric tools of trephination
32. SDMOM_090722_634.JPG: Worldly Evidence: The earliest trephinations have been found in Europe and data from Neolithic times (10,000 to 8,000 BCE). A skull with a large scraped opening, originally from the Czech Republic and now in the collections of the San Diego Museum of Man, is believed to be approximately 6,000 years old. Trephination was also practiced during the classical and Renaissance periods and was even discussed in medical texts of ancient Greece. In fact, Hippocrates wrote extensively about why, when, and how to perform skull surgery. Trephinations continue to be practiced today, without modern medical techniques, in certain areas of the world. For example, the Kisii and Tende peoples of East Africa trephine with metal cutting instruments, and many examples from the Pacific Islands have been documents over the last century. Trephined skulls have been unearthed from several hundred prehistoric sites in Europe, Africa, and Asia. Certain areas of Europe, especially France, seem to have been centers of the practice, though the pre-eminent locality for cranial surgery was prehistoric Peru. Peruvian cranial surgery may date from about 400 BCE to 1500 CE. Nearly one thousand skulls displaying one or more openings have been found in the central highlands and southern part of the country and in neighboring Bolivia around Lake Titicaca. The Peruvian surgeons were amazing competent: sixty to seventy percent of the patients survived the operation.
33. SDMOM_090722_645.JPG: Adult female skull. Large healed trephination created by scraping the skull.
34. SDMOM_090722_669.JPG: A Womb with a View: Who was the Lemon Grove Mummy? Direct observation indicated that the mummy was female and possibly pregnant. CAT scans of the mummy confirmed that she was 7-8 months pregnant at the time of her death. Skull bones and ribs of the fetus can be seen. Her hip and pelvic bones were dislocated -- perhaps from a fall or simply by the weight of time. To "see inside" the mummy without harming her, 38 CAT scans were taken by scientists. Other Research Methods and Tools: Scientists who examined the Lemon Grove Mummy employed many scientific methods and tools to learn about her and her culture: Carbon-14 dating: She lived around AD 1040-1260. Radiographs (X-rays): She was about 5 feet 2 inches tall. Blood typing of tissue: Her blood type was "O", the most common type in Mexican populations. Hair follicle analysis: She probably suffered from acute protein-calorie malnutrition. Scanning electron microscope: Fibers used in her string skirt are hemp; her anklets are cotton. Her hair ornament is made of nollina, a yucca-like plant.
35. SDMOM_090722_682.JPG: Peruvian Mummies: The five mummies in this case are from a burial cave near Lupo in the Peruvian Andes. They are preserved naturally by the dry environment and date to the early historic period, about 550 years ago. The largest mummy, a young female, was about 18 years old when she died. We can estimate her age by the unfused growth plate in her upper arm bone. The four children range in age from infancy to 5 years. The mummies were brought to San Diego in 1915 for the Panama-California Exposition by Dr. Ales Hrdlicka of the Smithsonian Institution. The mummied had been discarded by vandals who had ransacked the cave for valuables. The artifacts are from the nearby area and include a sewing basket complete with thread, bobbins, and spindles. The pottery and textiles are typical of Inca culture.
36. SDMOM_090722_706.JPG: The Headless Mummy: This tomb holds the mummified body of an Egyptian male from the Ptolemaic Period (332 to 30 BC), resting in the lower half of a wooden coffin. During the mummification process, the linen bandages were secured with a gummy resin that has since become hard and black. Radiographs show that the arms were placed over the body and that there are broken ribs and fractured long bones. These breaks may be due to rough handling after mummification. Sometime in the past, vandals stole the mummy's head and toes. The tomb includes objects that would have been used by the deceased in the afterlife. There are small glazed figures, called ushabtis, which were placed in the tomb to work for the deceased. Ideally, there would be 365 of them, one for every day of the year. Jars, a plate, and spindles are included for use in the afterlife. The replica of a boat model shows the mummy being transported to the sacred cemetery at Abydos on the west side of the Nile River. Boat models were common in Egyptian tombs. Thirty-five boats of various types and sized [sic] were found in King Tutankhamon's tomb, all pointing to the west. Mummy on loan from the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County.
37. SDMOM_090722_792.JPG: Kids section
38. SDMOM_090722_800.JPG: Earliest Intentional Mummies: Who: The Chinchorro people. When: 5,000 - 2,000 BC. Where: The south coast of Peru and the north coast of Chile, South America. What: The Chinchorro laid out their dead full length, removed the internal organs and muscles, and packed the bodies with clay and fibers. They reinforced the joins with sticks and glass cords, then modeled facial and body features with clay, finally painting the body black and decorating it. In their last 500 years of mummy making, the Chinchorro modified their techniques by removing the brain and painting the body red. Why: Archeologist Bernardo Arriaza believes that their mortuary practices developed out of a profound sense of grief coupled with abundant resources to support their mummification practices.
39. SDMOM_090722_821.JPG: The site dedicated to Truth -- Liberty -- Toleration -- by the Native Sons of the Golden West September 28, 1935
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Wikipedia Description: San Diego Museum of Man
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The San Diego Museum of Man is a museum of anthropology located in Balboa Park, San Diego, California. The museum's collections and permanent exhibits focus on the pre-Columbian history of the western Americas, with materials drawn from Native American cultures of the Southern California region, Mesoamerican civilizations such as the Maya, and the Andean civilizations such as the Moche. The museum also holds a collection of Ancient Egyptian antiquities, and several others from around the world. Total holdings number over 72,000 artefacts across all collections, together with some 37,000 historical photographs, mainly of Native Americans.

The museum traces its origins to the Panama-California Exposition, which opened in 1915 on the occasion of the inauguration of the Panama Canal. The central exhibit of the exposition, "The Story of Man through the Ages", was assembled under the direction of noted archaeologist Dr. Edgar Lee Hewett of the School of American Archaeology, who organized expeditions to gather pre-Columbian pottery from the American Southwest and to Guatemala for objects and reproductions of Maya civilization monuments. Numerous other materials were gathered from expeditions sent by anthropologist Aleš Hrdlicka of the Smithsonian Institution, which gathered casts and specimens from Africa, Siberia, Alaska and Southeast Asia. Osteological remains and trepanated crania from Peruvian sites were also obtained.
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2009 photos: Equipment this year: I mostly used the Fuji S100fs. I've also got a Nikon D90 and a newer Fuji -- the S200EHX -- both of which are nice but I still prefer the flexibility of the Fuji. Trips this year: Niagara Falls, NY, New York City, Civil War Trust conferences in Gettysburg, PA and Springfield, IL, and my 4th consecutive San Diego Comic-Con trip (including Los Angeles, Yosemite, Death Valley, Kings Canyon, Joshua Tree, etc). Ego strokes: I had a picture of a Lincoln-Obama cupcake sculpture published in Civil War Times and WUSA-9, the local CBS affiliate, ran a quick piece on me. A picture that I took at the annual Abraham Lincoln Symposium appeared in the National Archives' "Prologue" magazine. I became a volunteer with the Smithsonian American Art Museum. Number of photos taken this year: 417,000.
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