BGuthrie Photos: DC -- Donald W. Reynolds Center -- Portraits

DC -- Donald W. Reynolds Center -- Portraits:

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Copyrights: All pictures were taken by amateur photographer Bruce Guthrie (me!) who retains copyright on them. Free for non-commercial use with attribution. See the [Creative Commons] definition of what this means. "Photos (c) Bruce Guthrie" is fine for attribution. (Commercial use folks including AI scrapers can of course contact me.) Feel free to use in publications and pages with attribution but you don't have permission to sell the photos themselves. A free copy of any printed publication using any photographs is requested. Descriptive text, if any, is from a mixture of sources, quite frequently from signs at the location or from official web sites; copyrights, if any, are retained by their original owners.

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Specific picture descriptions: Photos above with "i" icons next to the bracketed sequence numbers (e.g. "[1] ") are described as follows:
1. SIPGPO_220508_04.JPG: Marta Moreno Vega, 1952- Born New York City Marta Morena Vega is a Nuyorican (a New Yorker of Puerto Rican descent), who grew up in the historically Puerto Rican neighborhood of East Harlem, also known as El Barrio. As a visual artist, Afro-Latina activist, scholar, author, educator, and Yoruba priestess, Vega has dedicated her life's work to shedding light on the experiences and contributions of people of African descent. As the second director of El Museo del Barrio (1972–1976), she described her vision for the museum as "challenging inequality, providing a creative thought process and creative expressions that would lead to solutions with the brilliant eyes of our artists." Then, in 1976, she founded the Caribbean Cultural Center African Diaspora Institute, which advocates for and connects Afro-descendent communities. This work led her to co-found the Global Afro Latino and Caribbean Initiative through Hunter College in 2000. In this photograph, Timothy Greenfield-Sanders elegantly captures Vega's strength, determination, and wisdom. This photograph is part of Timothy Greenfield-Sanders's series The Latino List, which explores what it means to be Latino in the twenty-first century. Timothy Greenfield-Sanders, 2011
2. SIPGPO_220508_15.JPG: Maria Hinojosa, 1961- Timothy Greenfield-Sanders, 2011
3. SIPGPO_220508_23.JPG: Sandra Cisneros, 1954- Born Chicago, Illinois Sandra Cisneros is the most prominent Latina voice in American literature. She drew upon her experience as the daughter of a working-class Mexican American family in Chicago in her first published work, The House on Mango Street (1984), which earned her the coveted American Book Award and became required reading in public schools and universities across the country. Cisneros was the first Latina to become a MacArthur Fellow (1995), and in 2002 the New York Times and other national newspapers selected her novel Caramelo as a notable book of the year. Cisneros projects herself in different ways in her many existing portraits, as if alluding to her free mind as a writer -- wearing pink wigs or animal print coats, or with her Virgin of Guadalupe tattoo exposed. Here we see her with her dog on the porch of her former residence in San Antonio, smiling at the viewer and wearing native Mexican attire. Timothy Greenfield-Sanders, 2011
4. SIPGPO_220508_33.JPG: Lillian Vernon, 1927-2015 Born Leipzig, Germany The founder of the first woman-owned company to be listed on the American Stock Exchange, Lillian Vernon built a multimillion-dollar direct marketing business from an initial investment of just $2,000.Born Lilli Menasche, she immigrated to the United States with her family in 1937, when the scourge of Nazism imperiled Jews across Europe. She became an American citizen, and in 1951, newly married and pregnant with her first child, she launched the mail-order company that became the Lillian Vernon Corporation. Specializing in inexpensive gifts, home goods, and gadgets—many of which could be personalized at no additional cost—Vernon found success by marketing her wares through catalogs that reached millions of households. Prefacing each edition with a chatty letter extolling her latest “finds,” she built a personal rapport with her customers. Vernon also embraced her role as the face of her enterprise, maintaining a stylish image in classic Chanel suits. Enid Cutler, c 1970
5. SIPGPO_220508_52.JPG: Katharine Hepburn, 1907-2003 Katharine Hepburn sported a highly stylized personality and headstrong independence that announced a new kind of female presence in Hollywood's heyday. She was an instant screen success, winning the first of her record four Best Actress Oscars in 1933 for "Morning Glory" and making such popular films as "Little Women" (1933). But subsequent choices like Sylvia Scarlett baffled her audience, and by 1938 she was labeled "box-office poison." "The Philadelphia Story" (1940) revived her career, and she never again faltered. She co-starred with Humphrey Bogart in "The African Queen" (1951) and partnered in nine films with Spencer Tracy, winning an Oscar for "Guess Who's Coming To Dinner" (1967). She also won Oscars for "The Lion in Winter" (1967) and "On Golden Pond" (1981). In 1990, she received a Kennedy Center Honors award. This portrait by her friend Everett Raymond Kinstler was said to be her favorite. Everett Raymond Kinstler Oil on canvas, 1982
6. SIPGPO_220703_003.JPG: Take a Closer Look With these elements in mind, try "reading" a portrait before you read the label next to it on the wall. What ideas can you form by looking? How does the label extend or challenge your ideas? What new questions would you like to explore?
7. SIPGPO_220703_007.JPG: Out of Many: Portraits from 1600 to 1900 Since its opening in 1968, the National Portrait Gallery has focused on exhibiting portraits of individuals who have significantly influenced US history and culture. Out of Many: Portraits from 1600 to 1900 includes portraits of Indigenous Americans, European colonists, clergymen, soldiers, writers, performers, scientists, and others who helped shape the country. A permanent exhibitions dedicated to America's Presidents is located on the second floor, while the galleries on the third floor highlight portraits of Americans who have lived in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Portraiture -- particularly before the advent of photography in 1839 -- reflects the reality of unequal economic and social structures. While visiting these first-floor galleries, you will find that the portraits of wealthy, powerful people greatly outnumber those without such status. There are more images of men than of women and more pictures of people of European descent than those of other backgrounds. The National Portrait Gallery acknowledges this imbalance and is constantly striving to diversify its collection in order to present a more comprehensive story of our nation. As you view Out of Many, we encourage you to consider the lives of these complex subjects and the ways that society and portraiture have changed since the seventeenth century.
8. SIPGPO_220703_011.JPG: Perspectives The Atlantic's Writers at the National Portrait Gallery It was the spring of 1857. America was divided, and war would soon come. In Boston, some of the country's most esteemed writers gathered to launch a magazine, one that would argue against slavery and for the Union. The Atlantic, its founders declared, would be "fearless and outspoken" and "of no party or clique." It would cover politics, literature, science, and the arts. Its special focus on abolition widened to include racial justice and civil rights on a broad front -- the themes of this tour. Sometimes with prescience, occasionally not, The Atlantic's editors and writers sought to advance an ever-evolving concept they called "the American idea." Portraits of many of The Atlantic's celebrated authors are displayed in this building. As you tour the galleries, look at wall labels with the PERSPECTIVES heading. There, contemporary Atlantic writers reflect on the lives and legacies of earlier ones. Scan the accompanying QR codes to access additional content and listen to current Atlantic writers as they discuss the full range of portraits in this self-guided tour.
9. SIPGPO_220703_021.JPG: Washington Irving and His Literary Friends at Sunnyside: The artists Christian Schussele and Felix Darley created this apocryphal gathering of leading writers at Sunnyside, Washington Irving's Hudson River home, to honor the literary culture created by America's founding generation of writers. By making Irving the center of the image, the artists both glorify his career and at the same time celebrate the national culture. But in doing so, they made the writers too much alike. As a New York critic wrote, "If [Irving] could have caught a glimpse of such a gathering . . . [he] would have dashed out of doors." Nonetheless, the group portrait is an important summing up of an era in which American literature found its voice and created a vigorous national culture that a new generation-Walt Whitman, Mark Twain, Stephen Crane-would later enhance. Left to right (top row): (1) Henry Theodore Tuckerman, 1813 - 1871 (2) Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., 29 Aug 1809 - 7 Oct 1894 (3) Nathaniel Hawthorne, 4 Jul 1804 - May 1864 (4) Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 27 Feb 1807 - 24 Mar 1882 (5) Nathaniel Parker Willis, 20 Jan 1806 - 20 Jan 1867 (6) James Kirke Paulding, 22 Aug 1778 - 6 Apr 1860 (7) William Cullen Bryant, 3 Nov 1794 - 12 Jun 1878 (8) John Pendleton Kennedy, 25 Oct 1795 - 18 Aug 1870 (Front row) (9) William Gillmore Simms, 17 Apr 1806 - 11 Jun 1870 (10) Fitz-Greene Halleck, 8 Jul 1790 - 19 Nov 1867 (11) William Hickling Prescott, 4 May 1796 - 28 Jan 1859 (12) Washington Irving, 3 Apr 1783 - 28 Nov 1859 (13) Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1803 - 1882 (14) James Fenimore Cooper, 15 Sep 1789 - 14 Sep 1851 (15) George Bancroft, 3 Oct 1800 - 17 Jan 1891 Christian Schussele after a design by Felix Darley, 1864
10. SIPGPO_220703_035.JPG: Left to right (top row): (1) Henry Theodore Tuckerman, 1813 - 1871 (2) Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., 29 Aug 1809 - 7 Oct 1894 (3) Nathaniel Hawthorne, 4 Jul 1804 - May 1864 (4) Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 27 Feb 1807 - 24 Mar 1882 (5) Nathaniel Parker Willis, 20 Jan 1806 - 20 Jan 1867 (6) James Kirke Paulding, 22 Aug 1778 - 6 Apr 1860 (7) William Cullen Bryant, 3 Nov 1794 - 12 Jun 1878 (8) John Pendleton Kennedy, 25 Oct 1795 - 18 Aug 1870 (Front row) (9) William Gillmore Simms, 17 Apr 1806 - 11 Jun 1870 (10) Fitz-Greene Halleck, 8 Jul 1790 - 19 Nov 1867 (11) William Hickling Prescott, 4 May 1796 - 28 Jan 1859 (12) Washington Irving, 3 Apr 1783 - 28 Nov 1859 (13) Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1803 - 1882 (14) James Fenimore Cooper, 15 Sep 1789 - 14 Sep 1851 (15) George Bancroft, 3 Oct 1800 - 17 Jan 1891
11. SIPGPO_220703_040.JPG: Cultural Identity After gaining political independence from Great Britain, the United States began the work of developing an independent culture. Writers, artists, performers, and intellectuals emulated the traditions they had inherited from the Old World, hoping to vie with their counterparts across the Atlantic and elevate the stature of their young country. Seized by the prevailing spirit of nationalism, many took up the challenge of deriving original subject matter from the history, land, and inhabitants of the United States. Several of the people whose portraits are shown here drew inspiration from the natural scenery of North America and the vast continent's dramatic differences in topography, climate, and wildlife. In imaginative poems, plays, short stories, and paintings, they mythologized the landscape as an untamed wilderness, ignoring thousands of years of cultivation by Indigenous communities. Furthermore, by transforming troubling facts into fanciful legends, they romanticized European colonists' exploitive history with Native peoples. Regional differences in the manners, customs, and language of the Northeast, South, and West infused many of these works, as did democratic values, such as individualism, optimism, and vitality. These creative and intellectual achievements helped to define the distinctive features of the United States and reinforced the popular myth of American exceptionalism.
12. SIPGPO_220703_043.JPG: Ralph Waldo Emerson, 1803-1882 Born Boston, Massachusetts In 1832, Ralph Waldo Emerson had a crisis of faith and resigned as a Unitarian minister at the Second Church of Boston. Having cast off doctrine, he developed a uniquely American school of philosophy known as transcendentalism. Sensing a divine presence in nature, Emerson asserted that individuals could experience God directly, without the mediation of priest or church, through solitary contemplation of the natural world. In keeping with the democratic ideals of his country, Emerson claimed that salvation was not limited to the select few, but available to all, gained through recognition of the divine power within each individual. Daniel Chester French, 1901
13. SIPGPO_220703_049.JPG: PERSPECTIVES The Atlantic's Writers at the National Portrait Gallery Ralph Waldo Emerson Commentary by Vann R. Newkirk II The philosopher and essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson took a long route to establishing his passionate stand on abolition, brought there not by religious fervor or conviction but by the gradual expansion of his personal optimism and belief in individuality and universal morality. Emerson raised his voice in defense of the radical abolitionist John Brown, executed in 1859 after his raid on the federal armory at Harpers Ferry. In April 1862, in the pages of The Atlantic, a magazine he had helped to found, he bemoaned the constant capitulation to slavery by so-called "free states" and declared that "Emancipation is the demand of civilization." Vann R. Newkirk II is a senior editor at The Atlantic and the host of the Peabody-Award-winning podcast Floodlines. Ralph Waldo Emerson
14. SIPGPO_220703_053.JPG: Noah Webster, 1758-1843 Born West Hartford, Connecticut Noah Webster is justly considered a polymath for his contributions to a staggering range of fields, including educational reform, antislavery advocacy, epidemiology, journalism, and copyright law. Yet he is primarily remembered as the lexicographer of the American Dictionary of the English Language (1828), whose legacy lives on in today’s Merriam-Webster dictionaries. Webster’s American Dictionary surpassed Samuel Johnson’s groundbreaking Dictionary of the English Language (1755) by documenting words, idioms, and pronunciations that were unique to the United States. He standardized the simplified spellings that still differentiate American English from British English, dropping the “u” from “colour,” for example. Webster considered the founding of the United States an opportunity for reinvention. “Now is the time and this the country in which we may expect success in attempting changes to language, science, and government,” he wrote in 1789. “Let us then seize the present moment and establish a national language as well as a national government.” James Herring, 1833
15. SIPGPO_220703_063.JPG: Go Ahead Nation In the decades after 1820, the United States experienced a period of rapid change. This was the era of canals and steamboats, the beginning of the railroads, and the acceleration of commerce and industry. A zeal for improvement led to investment in education and contributed to the religious enthusiasm that was sweeping the nation. Among the white male populace, the ideals of democracy and egalitarianism became a leveling force. In 1828, Andrew Jackson ran for president as a political outsider from the West. Once in office, he rewarded friends and punished enemies, dismantling the Bank of the United States to wrest power from northeastern elites. In 1830, Jackson approved the Indian Removal Act, which legalized the eviction of Indigenous tribes from ancestral lands. Despite efforts at resistance, approximately 100,000 members of the Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and Seminole tribes were forced west of the Mississippi River on a grueling "Trail of Tears." The southern lands they left behind became vast plantations supplying cotton to textile mills in the North. Expansion of agriculture and industry escalated the demand for forced labor. As the enslaved population exploded-from 1.2 million in 1810 to four million in 1860-free Black men and women agitated for change through religious and secular organizations.
16. SIPGPO_220703_071.JPG: Andrew Jackson, 1768-1845 Born in the Waxhaw Settlement, South Carolina During the War of 1812 (1812–15), Andrew Jackson defeated the Muscogee (Creek) in the Southwest and became a national hero after the Battle of New Orleans (1815). This reputation helped him win the 1828 presidential election. Historians debate who “won” the war— the United States or Britain; the latter had depended on Native American alliances, such as those with Tecumseh and his confederacy of Native nations. But they agree that Native Americans, who were dispossessed of their lands, lost the most. Half of the Muscogee territory (most of today’s Alabama) was surrendered to the United States. Cast after Clark Mills, 1855
17. SIPGPO_220703_072.JPG: Thomas L. McKenney, 1785-1859 Born Hopewell, Maryland Thomas L. McKenney implemented early governmental policies affecting Native Americans as superintendent of Indian trade (1816–22) and founding superintendent of Indian affairs (1824–30). While in office, McKenney commissioned paintings of Native diplomats by portraitist Charles Bird King. This effort eventually led him to compile the three-volume History of the Indian Tribes of North America (1836–44), which features lithographs of King’s portraits accompanied by biographical sketches by McKenney and his collaborator, James Hall. Despite his interest in the history of Native Americans, McKenney sought for them to assimilate into Euro-American culture through Christian education. He also helped secure the passage of the Indian Civilization Fund Act (1819) and, more ominously, the Indian Removal Act (1830), which confiscated Indian lands and forced Indigenous nations to relocate west of the Mississippi. When McKenney blamed President Andrew Jackson for the brutality of the Trail of Charles Loring Elliott, 1856
18. SIPGPO_220703_081.JPG: John B. Russwurm, 1799-1851 Born Port Antonio, Jamaica One of the first African Americans to earn a U.S. college degree (Bowdoin, 1826), John Russwurm cofounded the first Black newspaper in the United States in 1827. He and Samuel Cornish established Freedom’s Journal as a platform for African Americans to assert the imperatives of freedom and racial equality. The newspaper’s influence was widespread and is credited with inspiring William Lloyd Garrison to launch the Liberator in 1831. An ardent abolitionist, Russwurm initially opposed the efforts of the American Colonization Society to send free Black people to its West African colony of Liberia. When he became convinced, however, that the civil rights of African Americans would never be recognized in the United States, he immigrated to Liberia in 1829. After serving as editor of the Liberia Herald, Russwurm was appointed as the first Black governor of Maryland in Liberia, the independent Liberian settlement established by the Maryland State Colonization Society. Unidentified artist, c 1850
19. SIPGPO_220703_088.JPG: Territorial Identity For much of the nineteenth century, the United States pursued the goal of exploring, settling, and governing the vast country that lay to the west of the original coastal states. Many commentators expressed the belief that the United States was divinely preordained to expand west- ward to the sea and become a continental nation. Faith in this "manifest destiny" (a phrase coined in 1845) prompted aggressive expansionist policies that often led to violence. Whether by armed conflict, involuntary expulsion, or treaty, Indigenous communities endured forced migration and dispossession of ancestral lands. Through a bloody war with Mexico over Texan independence (1846-48), the United States gained immense tracts of land stretching to the Pacific Ocean. These developments came with consequences. The disputed status of slavery in the newly acquired territories brought the nation to the brink of civil war. Legislative compromise postponed the crisis-but only temporarily.
20. SIPGPO_220703_095.JPG: Thomas Nast, 1840-1902 Born Landau, Germany Illustrator Thomas Nast offered pointed political and social commentary as the North’s foremost cartoonist during the Civil War and Reconstruction. As a staff artist for Harper’s Weekly, one of the most widely circulated magazines in the United States, from 1862 until 1886, Nast shaped national conversations about many topics. His wartime imagery galvanized support for the Union cause while his Reconstruction-era illustrations promoted increased federal intervention in the South to guarantee the rights of formerly enslaved people. A longtime supporter of the Republican Party, Nast used his considerable platform to criticize President Andrew Johnson’s tolerance toward former Confederates and to support Ulysses S. Grant’s presidential candidacy in 1868. John White Alexander painted this portrait the year after Nast left Harper’s Weekly. Having worked together at the magazine during the 1870s, the two artists were well acquainted. Alexander portrays his subject staring knowingly at the viewer, evoking Nast’s reputation as a keen observer. John White Alexander, 1887
21. SIPGPO_220703_106.JPG: Philip H. Sheridan, 1831-1888 Birthplace unknown Union Army solider Thomas Buchanan Read based this painting on his famous 1864 poem “Sheridan’s Ride.” Both poem and painting commemorate Union General Philip H. Sheridan’s legendary ride on October 19, 1864, to rally troops at the Battle of Cedar Creek in Virginia, turning defeat into a victory that helped secure President Abraham Lincoln’s reelection. This painting remained in Ulysses S. Grant’s family for many years. Beginning in the late 1860s, Sheridan adopted the scorched earth tactics he used against the Confederate Army for his wars against the Plains Indians. As commander of the Military Division of Missouri—one of the highest-ranking officials of the U.S. Army—he played a pivotal role implementing federal imperial ambitions. The resultant genocidal dispossession of nomadic Native American societies of the Great Plains helped define the era historians now call the “Greater Reconstruction,” which encompasses the West as well as the South. Thomas Buchanan Read, 1871
22. SIPGPO_220703_112.JPG: Minimic, died 1881 Birthplace unknown Southern Cheyenne chief Minimic guided his people through the relentless campaign of harassment and attrition that General Philip Sheridan (shown at left) waged against Southern Plains Indians during the brutal Red River War (1874–75). Ultimately compelled to surrender, Minimic and other leaders were imprisoned without trial at Fort Marion, Florida, while their communities were forced onto government reservations. While at Fort Marion (1875–78), Minimic maintained peaceful relations to ensure his fellow prisoners’ survival and release. He counseled compliance with an experimental assimilation program that demanded they cut their hair, wear military uniforms, learn English, and attend Christian church services. However, the men were also encouraged to revive their Native identities when tourists visited. Shortly before returning home to his family, Minimic posed in an assortment of “Indian” clothing for James Wells Champney, who visited Fort Marion while on assignment to document the Reconstruction-era South for Scribner’s magazine. James Wells Champney, c 1878
23. SIPGPO_220703_121.JPG: Invention and Industry Entrepreneurs, industrialists, and laborers contributed to rebuilding the United States in the aftermath of the Civil War. The commercialization of innovations such as the telephone, the incandescent light bulb, and sewing machine altered how people communicated, lived, and dressed. The expansion of transportation networks, particularly by rail, allowed for more efficient ways to transport people and goods within cities and across the country. Newcomers from abroad joined the labor force that made it possible for raw materials, such as steel and coal, to be transformed into the products that fueled this postwar geographic and economic expansion. Great wealth coexisted with immense poverty, as fortunes were quickly made and lost, and speculative investing and lax financial regulations led to numerous financial panics. Wealthy philanthropists and social reformers took part in social betterment projects, including improving public education and healthcare. Yet the money funding these ventures was often acquired through unfair labor practices. Workers in farms, mines, and factories fought for improved conditions, although their efforts often discriminated against women, African Americans, and certain immigrant groups. The individuals whose portraits are presented here were key to many of the developments that transformed the United States into a modern industrial society.
24. SIPGPO_220703_124.JPG: Charles Yerkes, 1837-1905 Born Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Through shrewd and often unscrupulous business practices, the financier and entrepreneur Charles Yerkes established streetcar lines in Chicago in the late 1880s and headed the syndicate that built the London Underground at the turn of the century. In 1892, Yerkes contributed some of his fortune to the University of Chicago to build the Yerkes Observatory. It included what was then the world’s largest refracting telescope—one of the principal attractions of the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago. Yerkes helped underwrite the exposition and served on its fine arts committee. He also loaned several works of art, including twelve paintings by his favorite contemporary artist, the Belgian painter Jan Van Beers. This portrait, a gift from the artist to his faithful patron, was one of the works on display. In 1895, Yerkes erected a lavish mansion in New York City to house his large collection of European paintings and sculptures. Jan Van Beers, c 1893
25. SIPGPO_220703_142.JPG: Henry George, 1839-1897 Born Philadelphia, Pennsylvania As the United States advanced in material and technological progress, the economist Henry George observed, “The rich get richer, the poor grow helpless, the middle class is swept away.” The greatest danger facing the nation, George warned, was “the unequal distribution of wealth.” George’s stinging yet highly popular critique of capitalism, Progress and Poverty (1879), described with great eloquence the inequities of modern industrial society. George advocated eliminating all taxes except one based solely on land value. This “single tax” system, he asserted, would undermine monopolies, distribute wealth more evenly, and eliminate poverty. George championed free trade and the American worker. He vehemently opposed Chinese immigration, partly out of racial prejudice but also because he thought employers would exploit the influx of laborers and depress wages. George’s writings found widespread support, especially within the burgeoning labor movement, but he failed in his attempt to win elected office. George de Forest Brush, 1888
26. SIPGPO_220703_145.JPG: Nathaniel Hawthorne, 1804-1864 Born Salem, Massachusetts While growing up, Nathanial Hawthorne was steeped in the Puritan traditions of Salem, Massachusetts, which later provided many of the themes in his fiction. In celebrated works such as The Scarlet Letter (1850) and The House of the Seven Gables (1851), Hawthorne explored the moral and cultural history of seventeenth-century New England, especially the human tendencies to make mistakes, allowing even good people to stray into reprehensible behavior. Hawthorne’s portraitist, Emanuel Leutze, is best known for his painting Washington Crossing the Delaware (1851). He painted Hawthorne in 1862 while in Washington, D.C., to complete his mural for the U.S. Capitol, Westward the Course of Empire Takes its Way. Hawthorne described his visits to Leutze’s studio during the Civil War, writing of the mural: It “was most cheering to feel its good augury at this dismal time, when our country might seem to have arrived at such a deadly stand-still.” Emanuel Gottlieb Leutze, 1862
27. SIPGPO_220703_152.JPG: PERSPECTIVES The Atlantic's Writers at the National Portrait Gallery Nathaniel Hawthorne Commentary by Ann Hulbert Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter created a sensation in 1850. It was, Henry James later wrote, "absolutely American; it belonged to the soil, to the air; it came out of the very heart of New England." The Atlantic should have been a natural home for its author, but the relationship proved fraught. Hawthorne's personal views were detested in abolitionist Boston. He had not "the slightest sympathy for the slaves," he wrote a friend; "or, at least, not half as much as for the laboring whites, who, I believe, are ten times worse off than the Southern negroes." His first big Atlantic article, "Chiefly About War Matters," ran in July 1862. Skewering the war effort and mocking Abraham Lincoln, Hawthorne riled his audience. The Atlantic awaited fiction from Hawthorne to serialize. So did Hawthorne, in vain. "The Present, the Immediate, the Actual has proved too potent for me," he wrote, ill and overwhelmed. Ann Hulbert is the literary editor of The Atlantic and the author of Off the Charts: The Hidden Lives and Lessons of American Child Prodigies (2018).
28. SIPGPO_220703_155.JPG: Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, 1807-1882 Born Portland, Maine During the mid-nineteenth century, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow enjoyed phenomenal popularity as a poet. His commercial success stimulated new regard for literature as a viable profession as well as a pleasurable entertainment. While preparing for professorships in modern European languages at Bowdoin (1829–35) and Harvard (1835–54) colleges, Longfellow traveled extensively in Europe, learning German, French, Spanish, Italian, and Scandinavian languages. The literary traditions he absorbed through his travels and studies influenced the poetry he began publishing in 1839. Longfellow wrote his best-known works after retiring from teaching. “The Song of Hiawatha” (1855), “The Courtship of Miles Standish” (1858), and “Paul Revere’s Ride” (1861) are highly imaginative fictions inspired by events from Indigenous and colonial American history. In addition to selling thousands of copies in the United States, Longfellow’s works gained an appreciative international audience and were translated into twenty-four languages, many of which he had mastered himself. Thomas Buchanan Read, 1869
29. SIPGPO_220703_165.JPG: PERSPECTIVES The Atlantic's Writers at the National Portrait Gallery Henry Wadsworth Longfellow Commentary by Jeffrey Goldberg In the January 1861 issue of The Atlantic, Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, already the country's most popular poet, published what would become his most famous poem. Its opening lines are legendary: "Listen, my children, and you shall hear / Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere." "Paul Revere's Ride" is famous and memorable, without being well regarded. But beneath its aesthetic shortcomings are hidden layers that cast the work in a more meaningful light. Longfellow wrote "Paul Revere's Ride" to rouse the sleeping North. It was a summons to join the great abolitionist struggle when the future of the Union itself was in doubt. Longfellow was motivated by the patriotic idea that the American experiment was worth saving, and by the belief that his fellow citizens would awaken to the threat of secession if only they were to hear the cry of a modern Paul Revere. Jeffrey Goldberg is the editor in chief of The Atlantic.
30. SIPGPO_220703_168.JPG: Delia Spencer Caton Field, 1853-1937 Born Chicago, Illinois Delia Spencer Caton Field was a prominent art collector, philanthropist, and leader in the grassroots Pure Foods Movement. By raising awareness of unsanitary and unsafe food production, she and other women inspired the 1906 U.S. Pure Food and Drug Act, which prohibited “adulterated and misbranded food and drugs.” In 1907, as chair of the Civic Health Association in Chicago, she led an effort to stop the “adulteration” of milk with chemical preservatives and additives. Chicago lawyer Arthur J. Caton commissioned George Peter Alexander Healy to paint this portrait of his wife in Paris while the young couple were on their honeymoon. After Caton’s death in 1904, she married retailer Marshall Field. Widowed a second time in 1906, she resided primarily in Washington, D.C., from 1912 until her death. There, she entertained the political and social elite in her mansion, known as the Pink Palace, on 16th Street, NW. George Peter Alexander Healy, 1876
31. SIPGPO_220703_177.JPG: Out of Many: Portraits from 1600 to 1900 Since its opening in 1968, the National Portrait Gallery has focused on exhibiting portraits of individuals who have significantly influenced U.S. history and culture. Out of Many: Portraits from 1600 to 1900 includes portraits of Indigenous Americans, European colonists, clergymen, soldiers, writers, performers, scientists, and others who helped shape the country. A permanent exhibition dedicated to America's Presidents is located on the second floor, while the galleries on the third floor highlight portraits of Americans who have lived in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Portraiture—particularly before the advent of photography in 1839-reflects the reality of unequal economic and social structures. While visiting these first-floor galleries, you will find that the portraits of wealthy, powerful people greatly outnumber those without such status. There are more images of men than of women and more pictures of people of European descent than those of other backgrounds. The National Portrait Gallery acknowledges this imbalance and is constantly striving to diversify its collection in order to present a more comprehensive story of our nation. As you view Out of Many, we encourage you to consider the lives of these complex subjects and the ways that society and portraiture have changed since the seventeenth century.
32. SIPGPO_220703_180.JPG: Charlotte Cushman, 1816-1876 Born Boston, Massachusetts Charlotte Cushman was one of the most celebrated actors of the nineteenth century. After her initial successes in the late 1830s in New York City and Boston, she won great acclaim in England, often playing male as well as female roles. By the early 1850s she had shifted between “retirement” in Rome and regular returns to the stage. Socially prominent in her circle of expatriate artistic friends, she lived as a lesbian and had a long romantic relationship with sculptor Emma Stebbins. Cushman was living in Rome when English sculptor Shakespeare Wood carved her portrait in marble. Shakespeare Wood, 1853
33. SIPGPO_220703_186.JPG: Francis Davis Millet, 1846-1912 Born Mattapoisett, Massachusetts Possessed of an inherent wanderlust, Francis Davis Millet traveled widely during his varied career as a foreign newspaper correspondent, painter, and arts administrator. After studying at Antwerp’s Royal Academy of Fine Arts (1871–73), Millet completed several major mural projects, contributed to four world’s fairs, and was the center of an expatriate American artists’ colony in England. Millet served as a war correspondent for newspapers in New York and London during the Russo Turkish War (1877–78) and the Spanish American War (1898). This portrait, painted in Paris by his friend George Willoughby Maynard, shows Millet wearing Russian and Romanian medals awarded for bravery under fire. In 1912, while serving as director of the American Academy in Rome, Millet set sail for New York and was among the approximately 1,500 passengers who perished on the Titanic when the ship sank. He is honored by a memorial fountain on the Ellipse in Washington, D.C. George Willoughby Maynard, 1878
34. SIPGPO_220703_195.JPG: The Experiment Begins Conflicts between Great Britain and its former colonies persisted long after the conclusion of the American Revolution. The British Royal Navy confiscated American vessels and commandeered their sailors. Retaliatory shipping embargoes disrupted trade. Territorial disputes along the northern and western borders of the United States created further discord. At last, in June 1812, Congress declared war against Great Britain. Because it was intended to settle unresolved issues from the Revolutionary period, the War of 1812 (1812-15) is often described as the "Second War of Independence." It was also viewed as a war for independence by Indigenous people. As they continued their centuries-long struggle to regain control of their homelands and ways of life, many allied with British forces, hoping that a joint effort would prevent further territorial expansion by the United States. Others threw in their lot with U.S. troops in the hope of securing postwar support. The ultimate victory of the United States in 1815 redoubled the nationalist spirit that had helped instigate the war. With international crises at a lull, the country turned inward. For the next decade, a sense of national purpose, patriotism, and unity prevailed, leading to the period's nickname "The Era of Good Feelings."
35. SIPGPO_220703_197.JPG: James Smithson, 1765-1829 Born Paris, France British scientist James Smithson laid the groundwork for the largest museum and research complex in the world, the Smithsonian Institution. Although Smithson had no apparent connection to the United States, he bequeathed most of his fortune “to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian Institution, an Establishment for the increase & diffusion of knowledge.” During a career dedicated to the study of chemistry and mineralogy, Smithson published dozens of scientific papers. In 1787, he became the youngest person admitted to the Royal Society, Britain’s premier scientific academy. This portrait represents Smithson at the age of twenty-one, dressed in academic robes after receiving a master’s degree from Oxford University. It was once owned by his servant, John Fitall, who shares with the United States the distinction of being named in Smithson’s will. Smithson bequeathed him an annual sum of one hundred pounds “in consideration of his attachment & fidelity to me.” James Roberts, 1786
36. SIPGPO_220703_206.JPG: Solomon Isaacs, 1786-1855 John Wesley Jarvis, c 1813
37. SIPGPO_220703_214.JPG: Jane Cocking Glover, 1789-1876 Born Lincolnshire, England Jane Cocking Glover and her family contributed to the early development of Washington, D.C. In 1813, eight years after immigrating to the United States from England, she married Charles Carroll Glover, a prominent attorney and civic leader who was an early advocate of D.C. voting rights. The Glovers acquired extensive real estate and a residence on 10th Street, NW (the site of the present-day FBI headquarters), where enslaved servants attended to their needs. As evidence of their wealth and social stature, they commissioned this portrait by the Italian artist Pietro Bonanni, whose murals adorned the U.S. Capitol. Glover initiated a momentous chain of events by insisting that her North Carolinian grandson be raised in Washington. As an adult, Charles Carroll Glover Jr. became the driving force behind many of the capital’s defining features, including the National Cathedral, the National Zoo, Rock Creek Park, Embassy Row, and the Glover Park neighborhood. Pietro Bonanni, 1821
38. SIPGPO_220703_229.JPG: Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1764-1820 Born Yorkshire, England Benjamin Latrobe brought a new level of sophistication to U.S. architecture. A British emigrant who trained in Germany, he adapted European Neoclassical style to iconic American buildings such as the U.S. Capitol and the White House. His innovative fire-proof construction saved both from destruction after the British set fire to them during the War of 1812 (1812–15). Latrobe was just beginning his career when he posed for this portrait in London. A few years later, he departed for the United States, where he mentored a rising generation of architects, including Robert Mills, who designed this building. Charles Frederick von Breda, c 1790
39. SIPGPO_220703_232.JPG: Colonials No Longer In the 1760s, increased taxation and government interference fueled resentment in Britain's American colonies. Hostilities smoldered for a decade before erupting into armed conflict in 1775. Many colonists wished to avoid war, but representatives of the thirteen British colonies who formed the Second Continental Congress ultimately decided that it was inevitable. On July 4, 1776, they declared independence from Britain while also attacking the time-honored system of privilege conferred at birth on an elite class. Their assertion that all men are born equal and endowed with inalienable rights has served ever since as an inspiration and a challenge to countries around the world, including the United States. Thousands of Black men, both enslaved and free, joined in the fight, hoping that revolution might improve their lot as well. They sided with either the Patriots or the British, according to which contingent seemed most likely to recognize that they, too, had inalienable rights. Indigenous people also divided their loyalties, with the tragic consequence of splitting tribes, such as the Cherokee, and shattering the centuries-old alliance of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois) Confederacy's six nations. At the war's conclusion, neither the defeated British nor the triumphant revolutionaries respected the sovereignty of Indigenous nations, which they excluded from the 1783 peace negotiations.
40. SIPGPO_220703_236.JPG: Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, 1746-1825 Born Charles Town (now Charleston), South Carolina Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, a leading political and military figure in South Carolina who enslaved dozens on his plantations, was sought out by painter John Trumbull in 1791. The artist was traveling along the East Coast “taking heads” of Revolutionary War heroes. During the drafting of the U.S. Constitution in 1787, Pinckney had opposed including a bill of rights declaring all men were born free. He later defended his position, arguing it a “very bad grace when a large part of our property consists of men who are actually born slaves.” John Trumbull, 1791
41. SIPGPO_220703_241.JPG: Exploration and Colonization Lured by the promise of gold, silver, and other valuable commodities, European explorers traveled across the Atlantic Ocean to North America. Beginning in the sixteenth century, short-term voyages gradually evolved into more sustained attempts at colonization. As Spanish, French, Dutch, and English settlers competed with one another for territory long occupied by Indigenous communities, disputes arose, often erupting into armed battle. Religion played a key role in the development of North American colonies. Missionaries and colonists from France and Spain sought to convert Indigenous Americans to Catholicism. Puritans, who had left England in search of religious liberty, imposed Protestant beliefs on Native communities in the Northeast. From the beginning, colonists relied on the labor of indentured servants, captive American Indians, and-increasingly-enslaved Africans. Wealth and power became concentrated in elites who owned large plantations worked by enslaved laborers. Fortunes were made through investment in the profitable "triangle trade," in which raw materials from the colonies (such as sugar, rice, and lumber) were exchanged for manufactured goods from Europe and New England (such as rum, guns, and cloth) to purchase captive Africans. Moral or religious objections to the brutal system of slavery were rarely made until the mid- eighteenth century.
42. SIPGPO_220703_243.JPG: Sir John Hawkins, 1532-1595 Robert Boissard, c 1597-1601
43. SIPGPO_220703_255.JPG: Encounters: Indigenous Americans and Europeans Over many thousands of years, the original inhabitants of North America developed regionally distinct cultures and complex commercial and political networks that were profoundly disrupted by the arrival of Europeans. Beginning in the fifteenth century, colonists from Spain, France, the Dutch Republic, and England imposed foreign concepts of social hierarchy, land ownership, and religion on Indigenous peoples. The deadly weaponry and diseases they brought with them had catastrophic effects on Indigenous communities, which began a six-hundred-year struggle to preserve their rights, cultures, and lands. Among Europeans, curiosity about the newly discovered lands generated a ready market for portraits of Native Americans. Many of these images promoted colonial investment by advertising advantageous alliances formed with Native diplomats and cultural ambassadors, such as Pocahontas. Some portraits asserted the governing authority of tribal leaders and the martial power of their warriors. Others dramatized the "otherness" of unfamiliar manners, customs, and dress. The portraits in this alcove represent Indigenous Americans from the perspective of outsiders. They provide glimpses of the people encountered by Europeans but reveal far more about European political and commercial agendas for North America.
44. SIPGPO_220703_258.JPG: Le Roy, d'Albion -- ou Nouvelle Angleterre (THe King, of Albion -- or New England) Nicolas de Larmessin I, c 1670-80
45. SIPGPO_220703_264.JPG: Powhatan, c 1550-1618 Born Tsenacommacah (present-day Virginia) Powhatan (also named Wahunsenacawh) was the mamanatowick, or head chief, of a confederacy of Algonquian-speaking tribes when English colonists established Jamestown in the confederacy’s territory, Tsenacommacah. A skilled and strategic leader, Powhatan initially negotiated with John Smith (whose portrait hangs nearby) to exchange food for English goods. By 1609, Powhatan ceased trading with Jamestown and ordered attacks on anyone who left the settlement. Sporadic warfare between the Powhatan confederacy and English colonists over the next several years resulted in hundreds of casualties. However, Powhatan oversaw a period of peace that began in 1614—when his daughter Pocahontas married colonist John Rolfe—and lasted until his death. Powhatan is depicted in the inset illustration in the upper left corner of this early map of Virginia, which is based on Smith’s observations of the region. An inscription claims to show Powhatan at the time of Smith’s captivity in 1607. Dirck Grijp, 1618
46. SIPGPO_220703_275.JPG: John Smith, 1580-1631 Born Willoughby, Lincolnshire, England John Smith was a founder of Jamestown, England’s first permanent North American settlement. The accuracy of his famous claim that Pocahontas, pictured nearby, saved his life during his captivity by the Powhatan people in 1607 is dubious; Smith’s account likely misinterprets Pocahontas’s role in a Powhatan ritual. As president of the colony’s governing council from 1608 until 1609, Smith instituted policies that helped Jamestown survive inadequate provisions and disease. He later criticized the Virginia Company of London, which funded the venture, for putting profits over the colonists’ safety. Smith briefly returned to North America in 1614 to explore the northeast region, which he named New England in the hopes of attracting English investment. In 1616, Smith published this portrait of himself in a tract promoting the region. Although the text refers to Smith as the “Admiral of New England,” his bid to lead colonization efforts in the area was ultimately unsuccessful. Unidentified artist, possibly after Simon van de Passe, c 1617
47. SIPGPO_220703_282.JPG: Sa Ga Yeath Qua Pieth Tow, King of the Maquas John Simon, after John Vereht, 1710
48. SIPGPO_220703_290.JPG: Sacrifice of the First-Born Olata Ouae Utina, born 1539 Rene de Laudonniere, c 1529-1582 Olata Ouae Utina was chief of the Timucua Indigenous people, who lived along the St. Johns River in what is now northeastern Florida. In 1564, Utina established an alliance with the French explorer Ren� de Laudonni�re in exchange for military assistance. Firearms provided by the French enabled Utina to wage devastating battles against his enemies, the Potano people. This engraving was produced for an ambitious illustrated travel account, published in Frankfurt, Germany, in 1591. The artist, Theodor de Bry, never visited North America and based his illustrations on drawings and accounts from Laudonni�re’s expedition. De Bry emphasized manners and customs that would strike Europeans as unusual. Here, he represents Utina seated beside Laudonni�re, explaining the ceremony that unfolds in the distance, where a ring of dancing women surrounds a grief-stricken mother, whose infant son is being offered as a human sacrifice. Theodore de Bry, after Jacques Le Moyne de Morques, 1591
49. SIPGPO_220703_310.JPG: Pocahontas, c 1595-1617 Born near present-day Richmond, Virginia Matoaka, also known as Pocahontas, grew up in coastal Virginia among a confederacy of Algonquian-speaking Powhatan people overseen by her father. After John Smith and other representatives of the Virginia Company of London established a settlement at Jamestown, she promoted their peaceful relations with her people. Yet in 1613, an English sea captain kidnapped and ransomed her for corn, guns, and prisoners. While in captivity, Pocahontas was converted to Christianity, took the name Rebecca, and married the tobacco farmer John Rolfe. Their son, Thomas, was born in 1615. Eager to publicize Pocahontas’s apparent assimilation as a means of attracting investors, the Virginia Company transported her to England, where she arrived in June 1616. This painting, based on an engraving from that time, depicts Pocahontas as an affluent Englishwoman. Inscriptions proclaim her elite lineage, Christian religion, and marital status (confusing her son’s name with her husband’s). Pocahontas took ill and died nine months after arriving in England. Over the next four hundred years, her brief life inspired tributes and legends, including a fictitious romance with John Smith. Unidentified artist, after 1616
50. SIPGPO_220703_322.JPG: Out of Many: Portraits from 1600 to 1900 Since its opening in 1968, the National Portrait Gallery has focused on exhibiting portraits of individuals who have significantly influenced U.S. history and culture. Out of Many: Portraits from 1600 to 1900 includes portraits of Indigenous Americans, European colonists, clergymen, soldiers, writers, performers, scientists, and others who helped shape the country. A permanent exhibition dedicated to America's Presidents is located on the second floor, while the galleries on the third floor highlight portraits of Americans who have lived in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Portraiture -- particularly before the advent of photography in 1839 -- reflects the reality of unequal economic and social structures. While visiting these first-floor galleries, you will find that the portraits of wealthy, powerful people greatly outnumber those without such status. There are more images of men than of women and more pictures of people of European descent than those of other backgrounds. The National Portrait Gallery acknowledges this imbalance and is constantly striving to diversify its collection in order to present a more comprehensive story of our nation. As you view Out of Many, we encourage you to consider the lives of these complex subjects and the ways that society and portraiture have changed since the seventeenth century.
51. SIPGPO_220813_004.JPG: Arts 1875-1900
52. SIPGPO_220813_005.JPG: Arts From the 1870s through the 1890s, visual arts in the United States proliferated in every form and across social classes. New technology facilitated the mass reproduction of affordable prints and photographs while affluent industrialists amassed art collections and supported the founding of museums in major cities, such as Washington, DC, New York City, and Boston. Expanded transportation networks played a key role in dissemination of art, as did the transatlantic exchanges that introduced modern European movements such as Impressionism and Tonalism to American artists. Leading painters, who spent time in both Europe and the United States, used loose brushstrokes and bold cropping to lend a sense of immediacy to their subjects. Sculptors, many of whom trained in Paris at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, imbued their work with inventive details, fluid forms, and soft modeling. Writers, including Samuel Clemens ("Mark Twain") and Charles Dudley Warner (who coined the term "Gilded Age" in their novel of that title), critiqued US society through searing and sometimes humorous vignettes of daily life. These modernist tendencies were related to the emergence of an entrepreneurial artistic identity and an embrace of an increasingly consumerist society.
53. SIPGPO_220813_013.JPG: Charlotte Perkins Gilman, 1860-1935 Born Hartford, Connecticut During an age when social conventions limited women’s opportunities, author Charlotte Perkins Gilman exposed the psychological distress behind the sentimental facade of domesticity. In 1892, she published “The Yellow Wallpaper,” a short story about a woman confined to a single attic room to recuperate from “temporary nervous depression” and “a slight hysterical tendency.” Those labels were often applied to women whose limited scope of activity led to extreme frustration and boredom. Gilman herself, while suffering from postpartum depression after giving birth in 1885, had been forced into a mind-numbing “rest cure,” which only worsened her condition. Following her divorce in 1894, Gilman gained international recognition for her book Women and Economics (1898), which argues that women’s liberty is dependent on their economic freedom. Years earlier, before her rise to prominence, she sat for this portrait sketch by Ellen Day Hale, a pathbreaking artist who exemplified Gilman’s ideal of female independence. Ellen Day Hale, before 1880
54. SIPGPO_220813_027.JPG: Minnie Maddern Fiske, 1865-1932 Born New Orleans, Louisiana A leading actress at the turn of the twentieth century, Minnie Maddern Fiske (born Marie Augusta Davey) paved the way for the realistic portrayal of social problems on the American stage. An only child of actor parents, Fiske made her debut at age three as the young Duke of York in Shakespeare’s Richard III. From being a child prodigy, she rose to prominence in 1882 through her vivacious performance in Charles E. Callahan’s dramatic comedy Fogg’s Ferry. Fiske replaced the stilted stage conventions of “grand manner” acting with the more naturalistic, psychological style suggested by her introspective air and relaxed pose in this painting. From the mid-1890s, she became a champion of Norwegian playwright Henrik Ibsen, starring in works such as A Doll’s House (1879). Fiske was also a vehement critic of the Theatrical Syndicate, which worked to exert a tight monopoly over theater productions and venues around the country. Maximilien Colin, 1893
55. SIPGPO_220813_036.JPG: Mary Cassatt, 1844-1926 Born Allegheny City, Pennsylvania The painter and printmaker Mary Cassatt was one of the few women (and the only American) invited to join the circle of French artists known as the Impressionists. Frustrated by the limited art training available to her in Philadelphia, Cassatt studied in France and Spain before settling in Paris in 1874. There, she said, exposure to the innovative work of Edgar Degas marked a “turning point in my artistic life.” At Degas’s request, she exhibited with the Impressionists in 1879, and the two artists began a professional relationship marked by vibrant artistic exchange. They collected each other’s work and shared ideas about the depiction of modern life. Among the many portraits Degas made of Cassatt, this painting best captures the collaborative nature of their friendship. Leaning forward in her chair, Cassatt fans out a group of photographs before her, as if in the midst of discussing them with her portraitist. Edgar Degas, c 1880-84
56. SIPGPO_220813_043.JPG: James McNeill Whistler, 1834-1903 Born Lowell, Massachusetts An innovative painter and printmaker, James McNeill Whistler explored abstract qualities of atmosphere, color, and line in his landscapes and portraits. Although arguably the most famous American artist of his day, Whistler spent most of his life in Europe. In Paris and London, he dominated avant-garde artistic circles and heightened his celebrity through his wit and self-fashioning. Joseph Edgar Boehm sculpted this bust in 1872, the year Whistler exhibited his now famous Arrangement in Grey and Black No. 1: Portrait of the Artist’s Mother (1871) at the Royal Academy in London. Joseph Edgar Boehm, 1872
57. SIPGPO_220813_050.JPG: Violet Oakley, 1874-1961 Born Jersey City, New Jersey Violet Oakley was an accomplished illustrator, portraitist, muralist, industrial designer, and civic leader. In an era when women were rarely invited to create large-scale public art, she rose to fame for a mural commission depicting The Founding of the State of Liberty Spiritual (1902–6) in the Pennsylvania State Capitol Building. The acclaim from this impressive narrative work led to further prominent commissions. Oakley drew inspiration from the contemporary British Pre-Raphaelite art movement, which favored historical and literary subjects rendered in minute detail and brilliant color. She also advocated for Quaker ideals of equality and pacifism in her political activism, supporting the League of Nations, the United Nations, and Cold War disarmament. Fellow sculptor Robert Tait McKenzie, who was also a University of Pennsylvania professor of physical education, made this relief as a gift for Oakley, inscribing it “from her friend and admirer.” Robert Tait McKenzie, 1925
58. SIPGPO_220813_074.JPG: Edith Wharton, 1862-1937 Born New York City Before embarking on her celebrated writing career, Edith Newbold Jones Wharton experienced a privileged childhood as a member of New York City’s social elite. Extensive European travel was an important element of that lifestyle. Between the ages of four and ten, Wharton sojourned with her family in Italy, Spain, and France. While eight-year-old Edith was living in Paris, the Anglo-American artist Edward Harrison May painted this portrait. Although Wharton would later chronicle the frustrations of her childhood, it was during the European trips of her youth that she came to enjoy “making up”—inventing the fictional worlds she would write about as an adult. From the mid-1890s, Wharton spent much of her life abroad, where she formed friendships with other American expatriates, such as Henry James. Yet she owed her fame to incisive depictions of New York’s upper class, as in the Pulitzer Prize-winning novel The Age of Innocence (1920). Edward Harrison May, 1870
59. SIPGPO_220813_075.JPG: Henry James, 1843-1916 Born New York City Accustomed to international travel since childhood, the novelist Henry James was more comfortable in Europe than in the United States. In his fiction, James frequently explored the conflicts that arose when the “new” society of the United States encountered the “old” world of aristocratic European manners and mores. Works such as Daisy Miller (1879) and The Portrait of a Lady (1881) chronicle the misunderstandings and misadventures experienced by spirited young women traveling abroad. Although James ultimately claimed British citizenship, he retained his sense of identification with the United States. A close friend of the American novelist Edith Wharton, James was visiting her in Paris when he agreed to sit for this portrait by the French painter Jacques-�mile Blanche. Pleased with the final product, which disguised his girth, James declared, “it has a certain dignity of intention and indication of who and what, poor creature, he is!” Jacques-Emile Blanche, 1908
60. SIPGPO_220813_082.JPG: Cecilia Beaux, 1855-1942 Born Philadelphia, Pennsylvania One of the most admired portraitists of her generation, Cecilia Beaux was heralded by fellow artist William Merritt Chase as “not only the greatest living woman painter, but the best that has ever lived.” Beaux studied art in Paris from 1888 to 1889 and showed her work internationally, but her permanent residence remained in the United States, where she painted friends, family members, and numerous luminaries. In 1895, she became the first woman hired to teach full-time at the renowned Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts. Among many other accolades, Beaux was among the first U.S. artists invited to contribute a self-portrait to the Uffizi Galleries in Florence (1924), and she received a lifetime achievement award from the American Academy of Arts and Letters (1942). She once remarked, “When I attempt anything, I have a passionate determination to overcome every obstacle.” Beaux’s determination and self-confidence come through in this self-portrait. Self-portrait, c 1889-94
61. SIPGPO_220813_090.JPG: PERSPECTIVES The Atlantic's Writers at the National Portrait Gallery Louisa May Alcott Commentary by Adrienne LaFrance "I'd rather be a free spinster," Louisa May Alcott once wrote, "and paddle my own canoe." Little Women is the story for which Alcott is most famous, but it captures just a sliver of her literary charisma. Alcott wrote poetry, pulp fiction, and fairy stories. She carried with her an air of rebelliousness that electrified her work. During the Civil War, furious that she was not permitted to fight, she volunteered as a nurse for the Union Army and worked nights in a hospital, where she helped carry out amputations and comfort dying soldiers. Her 1863 Atlantic story "The Brothers" drew on this experience. Adrienne LaFrance is the executive editor of The Atlantic. She was previously a senior editor and staff writer at the magazine and the editor of TheAtlantic.com.
62. SIPGPO_220813_093.JPG: PERSPECTIVES The Atlantic's Writers at the National Portrait Gallery Louisa May Alcott Commentary by Adrienne LaFrance "I'd rather be a free spinster," Louisa May Alcott once wrote, "and paddle my own canoe." Little Women is the story for which Alcott is most famous, but it captures just a sliver of her literary charisma. Alcott wrote poetry, pulp fiction, and fairy stories. She carried with her an air of rebelliousness that electrified her work. During the Civil War, furious that she was not permitted to fight, she volunteered as a nurse for the Union Army and worked nights in a hospital, where she helped carry out amputations and comfort dying soldiers. Her 1863 Atlantic story "The Brothers" drew on this experience. Adrienne LaFrance is the executive editor of The Atlantic. She was previously a senior editor and staff writer at the magazine and the editor of TheAtlantic.com.
63. SIPGPO_220813_098.JPG: Louisa May Alcott, 1832-1888 Born Germantown, Pennsylvania Louisa May Alcott began to write professionally in her teens when her father, utopian theorist Bronson Alcott, left the family in dire financial straits. She published her first book, Flower Fables, in 1854. Her 1863 memoir, Hospital Sketches, reflects upon her service as a Civil War nurse. Asked by her publisher to write a book for girls, Alcott drew upon her own family experiences to pen Little Women (1868–69). This heartwarming novel about the lives of the four March sisters—Meg, Jo, Beth, and Amy—remains a literary classic. Frank Edwin Elwell, 1967 cast, after 1891 plaster
64. SIPGPO_220813_110.JPG: Bret Harte, 1836-1902 Born Albany, New York During his prolific writing career, Bret Harte helped to invent the literary myth of the “Wild West,” with its colorful cast of gamblers, prospectors, and saloon keepers. Harte was at the forefront of the regionalist trend in American literature, which aimed to capture the distinctive dialects, customs, and terrains of specific regions of the United States. His vivid evocation of the rugged lifestyle of California’s mining camps fascinated readers who had never ventured west. Stories such as “The Luck of Roaring Camp” (1868) and “The Outcasts of Poker Flat” (1869) brought him international fame. After relocating to the East Coast in 1871, Harte’s literary career flagged. He eventually settled in London, where he continued to publish tales of gold rush-era California. Writing to his British literary agent in 1893, Harte recalled how the Scottish artist John Pettie had struggled with his “unaccommodating features and evasive expression” while painting this portrait. John Pettie, 1884
65. SIPGPO_220813_114.JPG: Amanda Smith, 1837-1915 Born Long Green, Maryland A follower of the Protestant Holiness movement, which encouraged public testimonies of faith, Amanda Smith experienced a spiritual awakening, or “sanctification,” in 1868. Devoting herself to itinerant preaching, Smith became the nineteenth century’s foremost Black woman evangelist. Although most denominations, including her own American Methodist Episcopal (A.M.E.) Church, would not ordain women, Smith preached widely throughout the United States. Beginning in 1878, she took her ministry abroad. After returning home in 1890, Smith published this autobiography with her portrait as its frontispiece. Unidentified artist, 1893
66. SIPGPO_220813_119.JPG: Isaac Mayer Wise, 1819-1900 Born Steingrub, Bohemia (now Czech Republic) Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise helped define over thirty years of Judaism in the United States. When he emigrated from Eastern Europe in 1846, Wise joined approximately 50,000 Jews then living in the country. Wise set out to institutionalize a revised version of Reform Judaism that was intertwined with his new country’s notions of freedom and independence. For example, he and his followers founded the first congregation to eliminate sex-segregated seating. Though often seen as a progressive reformer, Wise actually occupied a middle ground, bringing American ideals and Jewish practices closer together without challenging the religious tenets of Judaism. In 1854, Wise founded what would become the second longest-running Jewish newspaper in the world, the Israelite (now the American Israelite), seen here beneath the pile of books. Twenty years later, Wise catalyzed the establishment of the first seminary to educate rabbis in the United States, Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati, Ohio. Morris Goldstein, 1881
67. SIPGPO_220813_125.JPG: Booker T. Washington, 1856-1915 Born Hale’s Ford, Virginia Booker T. Washington was born enslaved on a small farm in Virginia. After emancipation in 1865, he worked in coal mines at night and attended school during the day. At age sixteen, he enrolled at the Hampton Institute, which emphasized the skilled trades alongside teacher training for its Black and Native American students. In 1881, after teaching for several years, Washington was appointed director of what became the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute in Tuskegee, Alabama. There he established a curriculum of science and manual arts to cultivate Black excellence and further economic and social advancement. Richmond Barthe, 1973 cast, after 1946 original
68. SIPGPO_220813_131.JPG: PERSPECTIVES The Atlantic's Writers at the National Portrait Gallery Booker T. Washington Commentary by Adam Harris Writing in The Atlantic in 1896, Booker T. Washington argued that education, vocational skills, and Black self-reliance-the hallmarks of his Tuskegee Institute-would transform the circumstances of Black people and, ultimately, those of the nation itself: "It is through the dairy farm, the truck garden, the trades, and commercial life, largely, that the negro is to find his way to the enjoyment of all his rights." Washington was mistaken. If progress-whether industrial, educational, or otherwise-was going to lead to equality, it was not something that Jim Crow would abide. Adam Harris is a staff writer at The Atlantic and the author of The State Must Provide (2021).
69. SIPGPO_220813_132.JPG: John Brooks Henderson, 1826-1913 Born Danville, Virginia A lawyer by training, John Brooks Henderson capped an influential legislative career by serving as the first special prosecutor in U.S. history. Following two terms in Missouri’s House of Representatives (1848–50; 1856–58), Henderson served in the U.S. Senate (1862–69). Though an enslaver himself, he was instrumental in ratifying the Thirteenth Amendment (1865) that abolished slavery. His vote against impeaching President Andrew Johnson, however, ended his Senate career. In 1875, President Ulysses S. Grant appointed Henderson as special prosecutor to investigate the Whiskey Ring corruption scandal, in which distillers and officials defrauded the government of tax revenue. It was one of several scandals that ensnared Grant’s administration, and the president fired Henderson for criticizing his interference in the investigation. After retiring from law and politics in 1889, Henderson turned to real estate development in Washington, D.C., where he served as a regent of the Smithsonian Institution (1892–1911). Jean Joseph Benjamin Constant, 1895
70. SIPGPO_220813_139.JPG: Religion and Politics Religion and politics in the United States grew more differentiated by region during the late nineteenth century. In the North, a surge of immigrants from southern and eastern Europe swelled the Catholic and Jewish populations of major cities, where Democratic and Republican political machines courted these newcomers and other working-class voters. In contrast to recent immigrants, who adhered to religious orthodoxy, progressive US theologians promoted more liberal interpretations of Protestantism, Catholicism, and Judaism. Following federal abandonment of Reconstruction reforms, local Democratic governments controlled the South, overseeing the Jim Crow era of racist policies and vigilante violence. Meanwhile, independent African American churches became crucial forums for fostering the development of Black political and educational leadership. In the West, Indigenous communities faced relentless pressure to forsake ancestral lands, move to reservations, and renounce Native religious and cultural traditions. White encroachment into Western territories had been accelerated by the transcontinental railroad, largely constructed by Chinese laborers. However, anti-Asian prejudice resulted in the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882-1943), which prohibited further immigration. Black and white middle-class women established clubs and national organizations promoting causes such as temperance, voting rights, and racial justice. Their activism helped usher in the Progressive Era of social and political reform.
71. SIPGPO_220813_144.JPG: John McCloskey, 1810-1885 Born Brooklyn, New York The first U.S.-born cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church, John McCloskey served during the turbulent period that accompanied Catholicism’s rapid rise in the United States. McCloskey played a primary role in the spiritual and material growth of the church. From his ordination in 1834 as a priest in the Diocese of New York, through his elevation to bishop (1847), archbishop (1864), and cardinal (1875), McCloskey demonstrated the patience, tact, and discretion that made him effective in resolving discord within the church. His conciliatory approach also helped improve relations with the sometimes-hostile Protestant community. Approval for McCloskey was so widespread that when Pope Pius IX raised McCloskey to cardinal, Catholics and Protestants alike greeted the news with favor. Four years later, McCloskey presided at the dedication in New York City of St. Patrick’s Cathedral, whose completion was assured thanks to his tireless support of the project. George Peter Alexander Healy, 1875
72. SIPGPO_220813_154.JPG: Bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church This composite portrait united the only five Methodist Episcopal bishops living in 1872 with eight new bishops elected that year to create the full complement of thirteen. The image of unity belies the controversies stirred by one of the bishops, Gilbert Haven (1821–1880), whose portrait appears at lower right as number twelve. Haven’s outspoken and uncompromising push for progressive reforms sparked frequent conflict with the leaders of his denomination, including several shown here. Committed to human rights and a truly integrated society, Haven supported interracial churches, schools, denominational conferences, and marriages. He chose Atlanta, Georgia, as his episcopal residence and introduced desegregated ecclesiastical practices to Southern churches. Despite ill health exacerbated by malaria (contracted during a trip to Liberia in 1876–77), Haven relentlessly pressured the administration of President Rutherford B. Hayes (1877–81) to protect the voting rights, economic justice, and physical safety of African Americans in the South after Reconstruction. Alexander Hay Ritchie, 1873 Sitter Thomas Ashbury Morris, 1794 - 1874 Edmund Storer Janes, 1807 - 1876 Levi Scott, 1802 - 1882 Matthew Simpson, 1811 - 1884 Edward Raymond Ames, 1806 - 1879 Thomas Bowman, 1817 - 1914 William L. Harris, 1817 - 1887 Randolph Sinks Foster, 1820 - 1903 Isaac Williams Wiley, 1825 - 1884 Stephen Mason Merrill, 1825 - 1905 Edward Gayer Andrews, 1825 - 1907 Gilbert Haven, 1821 - 1880 Jesse Truesdell Peck, 1811 - 1883
73. SIPGPO_220813_164.JPG: James Gibbons, 1834-1921 Born Baltimore, Maryland James Gibbons was one of the most influential clerics of his day. Ordained a Roman Catholic priest in 1861, he became the youngest U.S. bishop in 1868, at age thirty-four, and was made a cardinal in 1886. While “he reigned in Baltimore like a king,” a British admirer once wrote, “he met every man like a comrade.” Committed to aiding the working class, Gibbons helped prevent the church from condemning Catholic laborers who participated in the Knights of Labor’s struggle for improved working conditions. He was also instrumental in maintaining unity in an increasingly diverse U.S. Catholic Church by promoting the acculturation of its foreign-born membership. A friend to several U.S. presidents, Gibbons often provided counsel on issues ranging from tariff policy to the annexation of the Philippines. The French artist Th�obald Chartran’s portrait of Gibbons captures the congenial personality that accounted in large part for his wide influence. Theobald Chartran, 1904
74. SIPGPO_220813_170.JPG: Representative Women of Deseret This poster of prominent female leaders in the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints was intended to counter derogatory stereotypes of Mormon women. Through their grassroots activism, they helped achieve women’s voting rights in local elections in Utah Territory in 1870. But their equally vigorous campaign to defend polygamy prompted newspapers across the country to publish scurrilous attacks and demeaning caricatures while representatives in Congress threatened legislation to revoke the franchise. Augusta Joyce Crocheron, whose portrait appears beneath the first “R” in the poster’s title, was among the writers who championed both women’s suffrage and polygamy in the Woman’s Exponent (1872–1914), “a journal owned by, controlled by, and edited by Utah ladies.” She also designed this poster, compiling the photographs of twenty leading Mormon women and interweaving them with phrases and imagery referencing their faith and accomplishments. The poster’s title includes the original name of the Mormons’ western territory, Deseret. Augusta Joyce Crocheron, 1883
75. SIPGPO_220813_195.JPG: Chief Joseph, c 1840-1904 Born Wallowa Valley, Oregon Hin-mah-too-yah-lat-kekt, also known as Chief Joseph, led a decades-long campaign to protect his people’s right to live on ancestral lands. Chief Joseph’s father was among the Nimiipuu, or Nez Perce, who rejected a treaty in 1863 that gave the federal government custody of virtually all the tribe’s Oregon homeland, where gold had recently been discovered. Throughout the early 1870s, Chief Joseph negotiated against federal attempts to relocate his community. Finally, in 1877, military troops threatened to forcefully move the Nez Perce to a reservation in Idaho. Chief Joseph led approximately eight hundred followers on a strategic retreat toward Canada. Only thirty miles from the border, a siege by U.S. troops forced Chief Joseph’s surrender. For the next eight years, he was imprisoned at several sites, including Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, where Cyrenius Hall painted this portrait. Following his release, Chief Joseph resumed diplomatic efforts on behalf of the Nez Perce. Cyrenius Hall, 1878
76. SIPGPO_220813_206.JPG: Sarah Winnemucca, c 1844-1891 Born near Humboldt Lake, Mexico (now Nevada) Sarah Winnemucca (whose birth name was Thoc-me-tony) was a nationally recognized advocate for Native American rights. Adept in five languages, she used her verbal skills to mediate diplomatic exchanges between her Northern Paiute community and U.S. government officials. In the early 1880s, she visited the White House and the U.S. Capitol to protest the Paiutes’ forced relocation to Yakama Reservation in Washington state. She also delivered hundreds of speeches detailing the mistreatment of Indigenous communities and wrote Life among the Piutes (1883), the first autobiography published by a Native American woman. Studio photographs such as this helped Winnemucca publicize her cause. It was made in Baltimore, where she delivered approximately sixty-six lectures in 1884. A final trip east in 1887 failed to attract funding for the school Winnemucca had established for Paiute children. Discouraged, she confessed to a supporter, “It is useless for me to try to stand against the World.” Norval Busey, c 1883-84
77. SIPGPO_220813_218.JPG: Carl Schurz, 1829-1906 Born Erfstadt, Prussia (now Germany) While representing Missouri as a U.S. senator (1869–75), Carl Schurz began a crusade to reform the civil service, which he continued as secretary of the Department of the Interior (then located in this building) from 1877 to 1881. Schurz concentrated on eradicating widespread corruption that plagued the Bureau of Indian Affairs. He dismissed agents and traders who cheated Indigenous communities for personal gain and fended off the War Department’s efforts to acquire oversight of the bureau. Having immigrated to the United States in his youth, Schurz strongly believed in assimilation and promoted the acculturation of Native Americans through education, rather than forced removal to government reservations. Schurz later became active in the anti-imperialist movement. In opposition to expansionists such as Henry Cabot Lodge and Theodore Roosevelt, he objected to the intervention of the United States in Cuba and the Philippines in 1898, warning that imperialism would be democracy’s downfall. Daniel Huntington, 1899
78. SIPGPO_220813_226.JPG: Bessie Potter Vonoh, 1872-1955 Born St. Louis, Missouri Raised by a single mother in Chicago, Bessie Potter Vonnoh is known for her sculpted figurines of upper and middle-class women and idealized representations of motherhood. Having trained at the Art Institute of Chicago, she opened her own studio in 1894. One year later, she traveled to London and Paris, where she visited the studio of Auguste Rodin, a pivotal experience for her practice. In 1899, Vonnoh married American Impressionist painter Robert Vonnoh, whom she had met in Chicago while preparing for the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition with her former teacher Lorado Taft. Here, Vonnoh’s husband depicts her in academic garb, a sign of her high professional status and the couple’s deep mutual respect. Highlights of Vonnoh’s distinguished career include her first solo exhibition in 1910 at the Corcoran Gallery of Art and her election as a full member of the National Academy of Design in 1921. Robert Vonnoh, 1895
79. SIPGPO_220813_234.JPG: Harriet Hosmer, 1830-1908 Born Watertown, Massachusetts Sculptor Harriet Hosmer has emerged as a feminist icon and symbol of the emancipated woman. As a young girl, however, she endured many trials. By the time she was twelve years old, her two brothers, one sister, and mother had died of tuberculosis. Determined to keep his surviving daughter healthy, Hosmer’s father encouraged her to spend time outdoors, riding and canoeing. At age twenty-two, Hosmer moved to Rome, where she lived among an Anglo-American community of artists, writers, and “independent women.” There she apprenticed with the leading Neoclassical sculptor of the time, John Gibson. Soon, her marble sculptures, many featuring idealized female subjects, were critically acclaimed in both England and the United States. British artist Sir William Boxall portrayed Hosmer outdoors in attire for horseback riding, a pastime that she continued to enjoy through her adult years. Exhibited at the Royal Academy of Arts, the portrait captures Hosmer’s fearless determination. Sir William Boxall, 1857
80. SIPGPO_221201_001.JPG: Shonke Mon-thi[NOT], Osage by Joseph Palmer; poster, 1905; National Museum of American History
81. SIPGPO_221201_019.JPG: Harmonics (1) Simone Forti, born 1935 Self-portrait Multiplex hologram, 1975-78
82. SIPGPO_221201_045.JPG: Will You Forget Me? Emma Amos 1937-2020 Born Atlanta, Georgia Self-Portrait 1991
83. SIPGPO_221201_071.JPG: Jose Hernandez, born 1962 Timothy Greenfield-Sanders, 2010
84. SIPGPO_221201_080.JPG: America Ferrera, born 1984 Timothy Greenfield-Sanders, 2011
85. SIPGPO_221201_092.JPG: John Leguizama, born 1964 Born Bogot�, Colombia The chameleon-like John Leguizamo first won over audiences in 1991 as the star and writer of Mambo Mouth, where he portrayed seven different Latino characters to sold-out theaters off Broadway. The award-winning production has been followed by four other critically acclaimed one-person shows: Spic-O-Rama (1993), Freak (1998), Sexaholic (2001), and Ghetto Klown (2011). With his signature fast pace and raunchy humor, Leguizamo sources much of his stage material from his unlikely path—from a working-class family in Queens to Broadway and Hollywood. He has played myriad characters in film, including a lowlife criminal (Carlito’s Way, 1993), drag queen (To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything! Julie Newmar, 1995), and Toulouse-Lautrec (Moulin Rouge, 2001), among others. In this portrait, we see a hint of histrionic mischief through his angled gaze at the audience. Timothy Greenfield-Sanders, 2011
86. SIPGPO_221201_101.JPG: Daniel Libeskind, born 1946 Abe Frajndlich, 1995 (printed 2000)
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