BGuthrie Photos: DC -- Natl Air and Space Museum -- Temporary Exhibit: Treasures of American History (in Gallery 211)

DC -- Natl Air and Space Museum -- Temporary Exhibit: Treasures of American History (in Gallery 211):

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Description of Pictures: Treasures of American History
November 17, 2006 – April 13, 2008
While the American History Museum is closed for renovation (Sept. 5, 2006-fall 2008), more than 150 highlights from the museum are on view here. The exhibition is divided into four sections: Creativity and Innovation, American Biography, National Challenges, and American Identity.
Highlights include:
* Dorothy's ruby slippers and the rarely seen Scarecrow costume worn by Ray Bolger in The Wizard of Oz
* First lady Jacqueline Kennedy's inaugural gown
* the compass used by Lewis and Clark during their journey across the Louisiana Territory
* the Woolworth's lunch counter from Greensboro, N.C., where four African American students began a "sit-in" in 1960 that lasted for six months
* Thomas Jefferson's bible and lap desk
* Abraham Lincoln's top hat
* Thomas Edison's lightbulb
* General Custer's buckskin jacket
* R2-D2 and C-3PO from Star Wars
* Kermit the Frog
* Duke Ellington's sheet music for "Mood Indigo"

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Copyrights: All pictures were taken by amateur photographer Bruce Guthrie (me!) who retains copyright on them. Free for non-commercial use with attribution. See the [Creative Commons] definition of what this means. "Photos (c) Bruce Guthrie" is fine for attribution. (Commercial use folks including AI scrapers can of course contact me.) Feel free to use in publications and pages with attribution but you don't have permission to sell the photos themselves. A free copy of any printed publication using any photographs is requested. Descriptive text, if any, is from a mixture of sources, quite frequently from signs at the location or from official web sites; copyrights, if any, are retained by their original owners.

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Specific picture descriptions: Photos above with "i" icons next to the bracketed sequence numbers (e.g. "[1] ") are described as follows:
1. SIAIRT_061117_009.JPG: Kermit the Frog, around 1970: The creation and alter ego of master puppeteer Jim Henson, Kermit the Frog is an American icon, recognized worldwide as the television star of Sesame Street and The Muppet Show. For decades, Henson's adorably zany cast of Muppet characters has entertained children and adults alike with music, comedy, and life lessons. Kermit served as a crusader for tolerance through his hit song "(It's Not Easy) Being Green."
2. SIAIRT_061117_017.JPG: Technicolor Camera, around 1938: In The Wizard of Oz, Dorothy's journey from Kansas to Oz is symbolized by a shift from black and white to Technicolor. This camera was one of several used to film the Oz scenes. Invented in 1932, the Technicolor camera recorded on three separate negatives -- red, blue, and green -- which were then combined to develop a full-color positive print. The box encasing the camera, a "blimp," muffled the machine's sound during filming.
3. SIAIRT_061117_022.JPG: Scarecrow Costume, 1938: Ray Bolger wore this patchwork outfit as the Scarecrow, one of the trio of friends who accompany Dorothy to the Emerald City in The Wizard of Oz. Designed by Adrian, MGM's premier costume artist, the straw-stuffed clothing fit loosely enough so that Bolger could perform his comedic dance number, "If I Only Had a Brain." A sponge-rubber mask, resembling burlap, completed the Scarecrow's costume. Under the hot lights on the set, the mask was stifling, and it frequently had to be replaced.
4. SIAIRT_061117_025.JPG: Dorothy's Ruby Slippers, 1938: Sixteen-year-old Judy Garland wore these sequined shoes as Dorothy in The Wizard of Oz. In the original book by L. Frank Baum, Dorothy's magic slippers are silver; for the Technicolor movie, they were changed to ruby red to show up more vividly against the yellow-brick road. One of several pairs used during filming, these size-five shoes are well-worn, suggesting they were Garland's primary pair for dancing scenes.
5. SIAIRT_061117_033.JPG: Bell Telephone, 1876: In July 1876, Alexander Graham Bell demonstrated this experimental telephone at the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia to introduce his new invention to the world. Bell, a teacher of the deaf, drew on his studies of sound and speech to devise a method of transmitting voices over electrical wires. Unlike the telegraph, the telephone enabled people to communicate directly, without special skills or codes. First used as a business tool, after 1900 the telephone expanded into private homes and ultimately became a necessity of daily life.
6. SIAIRT_061117_046.JPG: R2-D2 and C-3PO, from Return of the Jedi, around 1982: Created by Star Wars filmmaker George Lucas, these two "droids" are among the most famous of all science-fiction robots. The little R2-D2 is spunky and resourceful, while his companion, the more human-looking C-3PO, is a bit of a worrywart. Of course, each of these robots was really a costume with an actor inside. Human-like robots have long been a staple of popular culture, depicted in both positive and menacing ways. In reality, while engineers have made great strides in practical robotics and artificial intelligence, real robots seldom appear in human form. (back) ENIAC, 1942: The machine that launched the computer industry, ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was developed during World War II to compute artillery range tables. John Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert designed and built the computer at the University of Pennsylvania. This is only a small portion of ENIAC, which altogether took up 1,500 square feet of space, weighed 30 tons, and contained 18,000 vacuum tubes. While ENIAC could function much faster than the human brain, its capability was still lower than a modern scientific calculator. It also required a large staff of tube-changers, programmers, and operators to keep it running.
7. SIAIRT_061117_050.JPG: Stradivari Violin, the "Greffuhle," around 1709: Handcrafted by Antonio Stradivari in Cremona, Italy, this instrument represents an artistic standard of perfection recognized by classical musicians in the United States and around the world. Of the 620 Stradivari instruments that survive, this is one of only eleven that are decorated. The inlay along the sides -- an ornate motif of flowers, vines, and animals -- is suggestive of eternal life and the promise of paradise. The brilliant tone of the Greffuhle (named for a French nobleman who once owned it) can still be heard today in concerts by the Smithsonian's Axelrod String Quartet and the Smithsonian Chamber Players.
8. SIAIRT_061117_068.JPG: Singer Sewing Machine, 1851: Isaac Singer patented some improvements to the sewing machine, but his big contribution was marketing. Through staged competitions and the use of installment credit plans, Singer largely created consumer demand for sewing machines
9. SIAIRT_061117_072.JPG: Harvester and Self-Raking Reaper, 1877: William Whiteley of Springfield, Ohio, submitted this unusually decorative model along with his patent application. The Museum's holding of about 10,000 patent models (originally submitted to the Patent Office in the 19th century) are a prized treasure of the collection. While most inventions, like Whiteley's reaper, are simple incremental improvements, the models illustrate the dreams of individuals who hoped to advance American industry, make their fortune, prove their genius, and demonstrate their value to society.
10. SIAIRT_061117_076.JPG: Sholes & Glidden Typewriter, 1874: The first commercially successful American writing machine, this typewriter was manufactured by E. Remington & Sons from a design patented by Christopher Sholes and Carlos Glidden. The keys were specially arranged to prevent them from jamming and to promote faster typing, creating the "QWERTY" keyboard still used today. As the nature of office work changed in the late 19th century, the introduction of the typewriter created new job opportunities for women. Unlike the male clerks whom they replaced, however, female office workers had far fewer chances for advancement.
11. SIAIRT_061117_084.JPG: Spencer Microscope, 1849–59: Until Charles A. Spencer began making microscopes in Canastota, New York, in 1838, the only high-quality scientific instruments available in the United States were imported from Europe. Spencer gained fame among American scientists for his fine objective lenses, which provided stronger magnification and sharper resolution than many European models. This brass monocular microscope, equipped with a mirror to reflect light through the slide, could be used with either a compound or a simple lens.
12. SIAIRT_061117_088.JPG: Röntgen X-ray Tube, around 1895: German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, the discoverer of X-rays, used this vacuum tube in his early experiments. By applying electric current to the tube, he produced a mysterious type of radiation that could penetrate objects and form images on the other side. Röntgen's discovery created an immediate international sensation, and physicians quickly adopted the X-ray for medical diagnosis and treatment. "Bone portraits" were also produced as novelties before the risks of radiation exposure were fully recognized.
13. SIAIRT_061117_092.JPG: Salk Polio Vaccine and Syringe, 1954–55: Jonas Salk used this syringe and these vials of polio vaccine to immunize patients during the vaccine's clinical trial in 1954–55. Poliomyelitis, or infantile paralysis, was the most dreaded disease in the United States for much of the 20th century. Salk's vaccine used inactivated, or "killed," poliovirus to trigger an immune response against the disease. On April 12, 1955, officials announced the vaccine's success and launched a nationwide immunization campaign. Within a generation, new cases of polio nearly disappeared.
14. SIAIRT_061117_096.JPG: Sample of Plutonium-239, 1941: From this microscopic sample of plutonium, scientists working on the Manhattan Project gained knowledge that helped to create the atomic bomb. In 1940, scientists at the University of California at Berkeley transformed uranium into a new radioactive element, plutonium. Further testing proved plutonium was fissionable, meaning it could produce nuclear energy. On July 16, 1945, the world's first nuclear bomb, fueled by a plutonium core about the size of a baseball, was detonated near Alamogordo, New Mexico.
15. SIAIRT_061117_113.JPG: John L. Lewis's Union Badge, 1936: John Lewis, one of America's foremost labor leaders, wore this badge at the 1936 United Mine Workers of America (UMWA) convention. Born in an Iowa coal-mining camp, Lewis went to work in the mines at age fifteen. He rose quickly as a labor leader, becoming president of the UMWA in 1920, and later helped found the Congress of Industrial Organizations. Lewis led a successful struggle to organize industrial workers, improving wages, safety, and benefits.
16. SIAIRT_061117_117.JPG: Babe Ruth Autographed Baseball, around 1930: The New York Yankees' legendary Sultan of Swat signed this baseball for a fan during a visit to Scranton, Pennsylvania. A neglected and delinquent child, Ruth discovered his love for baseball while living at St. Mary's Industrial School for Boys in Baltimore. He began his major-league career as a star pitcher, but was reassigned to the outfield due to his powerful swing. With his record-setting home runs -- 60 in one season, 714 career total -- and larger-than-life personality, Ruth thrilled fans and redefined the character of America's national pastime.
17. SIAIRT_061117_125.JPG: Helen Keller's Watch, around 1880: Specially designed with pins around the case edge to mark the hours, this Swiss-made "touch watch" was one of Helen Keller's prized possessions. As a baby, Keller contracted an illness that left her completely deaf and blind. After years of frustrated isolation, she met educator Annie Sullivan, who taught Keller to communicate by spelling words into her hand. Keller eventually learned to read, write, and speak, and attended Radcliffe College. Her inspiring story made her an international celebrity, and she became a prominent spokeswoman for disability rights.
18. SIAIRT_061117_131.JPG: Pike from John Brown's Raid, 1859: On October 16, 1859, militant abolitionist John Brown and his small group of followers, armed with pikes and guns, seized the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry, Virginia. Brown hoped to raise an army of freed slaves and invade the South. The plan failed, and Brown was executed for treason. For some, mainly in the North, John Brown was a martyr to the just cause of ending slavery. Others, mainly in the South, viewed him as a terrorist.
19. SIAIRT_061117_143.JPG: Antislavery Medallion, around 1787: English ceramic manufacturer Josiah Wedgwood was also an active abolitionist. In 1787 he designed this jasperware cameo, featuring a kneeling slave and the motto "Am I not a man and a brother?" Distributed in both England and the United States, the medallions helped popularize the abolitionist cause. Benjamin Franklin, president of the first American antislavery society, wrote to Wedgwood: "I am persuaded [the medallion] may have an Effect equal to that of the best written Pamphlet in procuring favour to those oppressed people."
20. SIAIRT_061117_149.JPG: "Warrior Killing a Soldier," 1894: Drawn by a Cheyenne military prisoner, this picture shows a mounted Indian warrior charging toward a line of U.S. troops. After the Civil War, the U.S. government launched a campaign of invasion, relocation, and extermination against the tribes of the Great Plains to secure western lands for white settlement. By 1890, soldiers had overcome and suppressed armed Indian resistance and forced most tribes onto reservations. Indian artists, working on paper instead of traditional buffalo hides, recorded the bloody battles along with memories of a lost way of life.
21. SIAIRT_061117_153.JPG: Custer's Coat, 1870s: One of the West's most colorful and controversial figures, George Armstrong Custer wore this buckskin coat while leading the Seventh U.S. Cavalry on the Great Plains. On an expedition in 1874, Custer confirmed the presence of gold in the Black Hills of what is now South Dakota, a sacred hunting ground on the Lakota Indian reservation. A war over the territory ensued, with Custer leading the charge. On June 25, 1876, Custer's forces were annihilated at the Battle of Little Bighorn in Montana. But the Lakota victory was short-lived; in 1877, the tribe surrendered the Black Hills to the U.S. government.
22. SIAIRT_061117_160.JPG: George Washington's Candlestand, 1796: By the light of this brass candelabrum, President Washington worked on his Farewell Address to the nation, which was published in September 1796. After serving two terms as U.S. president, Washington opted not to seek a third -- an example followed by all presidents but one, until term limits were officially imposed. In his Farewell Address, Washington urged Americans to uphold the Constitution and guard against divisive influences that could threaten national unity, including sectional self-interests, party politics, and alliances with foreign governments.
23. SIAIRT_061117_164.JPG: Thomas Jefferson's Desk, 1776: In June 1776, Thomas Jefferson drafted the Declaration of Independence on this mahogany writing box of his own design. The Declaration asserted the colonists' right to revolt against English rule by invoking the principles of equality, liberty, and self-government. For Jefferson and his fellow founders, these rights applied only to people like themselves -- free white men who owned property. But in proclaiming that "all men are created equal," the Declaration gave others a basis to claim those rights in the future.
24. SIAIRT_061117_175.JPG: AIDS Memorial Quilt Panel, 1987: This panel honors activist Roger Lyon, who died of AIDS in 1984. Shortly before his death, Lyon testified before Congress to appeal for funding to combat the growing epidemic. One of the greatest challenges in the fight against AIDS was changing public attitudes toward the disease and its victims, who were predominantly homosexual men. To awaken a seemingly uncaring nation to the magnitude of the crisis, activists created the AIDS Memorial Quilt. Through its thousands of panels, each with a personal story, the quilt has served as a call for compassion, education, and action.
25. SIAIRT_061117_179.JPG: Spotsylvania Stump, 1864: A mute testimony to the horrors of war, this shattered, bullet-riddled stump is all that remains of a large oak tree caught in the crossfire during one of the most ferocious battles of the Civil War. On May 12, 1864, Union forces launched a frontal assault on the entrenched Confederate defenses around Spotsylvania Court House, Virginia. Twenty hours of intense hand-to-hand combat ensued, leaving thousands dead or wounded. The site of the worst fighting, near where this tree fell, became known as the Bloody Angle.
26. SIAIRT_061117_183.JPG: "Cheesehead" Hat, 1996: Worn by Patricia Hawley, Wisconsin delegate to the Democratic National Convention
27. SIAIRT_061117_188.JPG: Construction Hard Hat, 2001: Worn by ironworker Dennis Quinn during the World Trade Center recovery operation
28. SIAIRT_061117_193.JPG: Firefighter's Parade Helmet, 1883–85: Worn by Peter Zeluff, assistant chief engineer
29. SIAIRT_061117_197.JPG: Straw Hat, 1970s: Worn by country comedian Minnie Pearl
30. SIAIRT_061117_201.JPG: Carnival Mask (careta de vejigante), 1985: Made by Miguel Caraballo of Ponce, Puerto Rico
31. SIAIRT_061117_207.JPG: Miss America's Crown, 1951: Worn by Yolande Betbeze
32. SIAIRT_061117_212.JPG: Batting Helmet, around 1970: Worn by Carl Yastrzemski of the Boston Red Sox
33. SIAIRT_061117_215.JPG: Camouflage Helmet, 1969: Worn by U.S. soldier Terry Turner in Vietnam and tracking the months remaining on his tour of duty
34. SIAIRT_061117_220.JPG: Dizzy Gillespie's Trumpet, 1972: Modern-jazz virtuoso Dizzy Gillespie played this customized King "Silver Flair" trumpet from 1972 to 1985. He adopted the signature angled design in 1954, after someone accidentally bent his horn and he discovered he liked the sound that resulted. In the 1940s, Gillespie helped develop an innovative style known as "bebop," or "bop," which marked the birth of modern jazz. Featuring intricate improvisations, complex harmonies, and rapid rhythms, bebop reflected a desire among African American artists to reclaim jazz from the commercial mainstream and elevate it from dance music to a sophisticated art form.
35. SIAIRT_061117_227.JPG: Prince's Electric Guitar, 1989: Called the "Yellow Cloud," this guitar was designed and played by Prince. The fingerboard is decorated with the artist's personal icon, a combination of male and female symbols. Launched to superstardom by the 1984 album Purple Rain, Prince has put his singular mark on American popular music as a performer, songwriter, producer, and innovator. Blending influences that include funk, gospel, hip-hop, and rock, his music has had broad appeal and reflected his distinctive personality.
36. SIAIRT_061117_235.JPG: Seinfeld's "Puffy Shirt," 1993: On a memorable episode of Seinfeld (NBC, 1989–98), comedian Jerry Seinfeld unwittingly agreed to wear this frilly pirate shirt during an appearance on the Today show. The hit series, famously described as a show "about nothing," reveled in the absurd situations that emerged from the everyday lives of its four main characters: Jerry, George, Elaine, and Kramer. The "puffy shirt" episode, originally broadcast September 23, 1993, was written by Seinfeld cocreator Larry David.
37. SIAIRT_061117_243.JPG: Carrie Bradshaw's Computer, 1998–2004: Manhattan newspaper columnist Carrie Bradshaw, played by Sarah Jessica Parker (second from left), used this laptop to record her observations on modern relationships in the risqué comedy series Sex and the City (HBO, 1998–2004). Frank, witty, and often outrageous, the Emmy Award–winning cable show won millions of loyal fans with its depiction of four women friends and their romantic urban escapades. It also established cable TV as a competitive producer of original programming. Sex and the City set fashion trends, from Manolo Blahnik shoes to cosmopolitan cocktails, and provoked cultural debates about sex, relationships, and gender roles.
38. SIAIRT_061117_246.JPG: M*A*S*H Signpost, 1970s: Pointing the way to anyplace but here, this prop from M*A*S*H (CBS, 1972–83) reflects the characters' humorous efforts to cope with the horrors of war. The show, set in an army field hospital during the Korean War, debuted in the final years of the Vietnam War, and its antiwar theme resonated with many Americans. Its talented ensemble cast and compelling storylines earned M*A*S*H lasting popularity. The final program, broadcast on February 28, 1983, was the most-watched series episode in television history.
39. SIAIRT_061117_256.JPG: 60 Minutes Stopwatch, 1970s–90s: The most-watched news program in American history, 60 Minutes (CBS, 1968– ) revolutionized television journalism with its pioneering newsmagazine format. As conceived by producer Don Hewitt, the show includes a mix of breaking news, investigative reports, interviews, and commentary. The famous opening logo, a ticking stopwatch, also marks time between segments. This watch was used on the program until the late 1990s, when it was replaced by a computer graphic.
40. SIAIRT_061117_258.JPG: The Lone Ranger's Mask, 1950s: Clayton Moore wore this black mask as the star of The Lone Ranger (ABC, 1949–57), a Western about a Texas Ranger who disguises his identity to fight crime on the frontier. Accompanied by his trusted Indian friend, Tonto, and packing a gun loaded with silver bullets, the Lone Ranger dispensed justice while respecting the laws of society. Week after week, he thrilled fans with his heroic adventures, virtuous conduct, and the stirring call to his white stallion: "Hi-yo Silver, away!"
41. SIAIRT_061117_270.JPG: Barbie Doll, around 1960: In 1959, the Mattel toy company introduced Barbie. Unlike most dolls at the time, Barbie was a grown-up -- a "teenage fashion model" who could date, drive, and wear fabulous clothes. While often criticized for her unrealistic physical proportions and for promoting gender stereotypes, Barbie has also evolved with the times. Since the 1980s she has taken on many new careers, from police officer to paleontologist; she even ran for president.
42. SIAIRT_061117_274.JPG: Teddy Bear, around 1903: This is one of the earliest teddy bears, created by a Brooklyn candy store owner who went on to form the Ideal Novelty and Toy Company. Named after a president and inspired by an editorial cartoon, this beloved childhood companion has a political history all its own. In 1902, Washington Post cartoonist Clifford Berryman depicted President Theodore Roosevelt refusing to shoot a captured bear offered up as a hunting trophy. The bear became a regular figure in Berryman's cartoons, serving as a fuzzy, cuddly foil for the brawny president.
43. SIAIRT_061117_280.JPG: Victorian House Model, 1876: A masterpiece of craftsmanship, this ornate model was built by Leonard Roth, a Philadelphia shoemaker, and took ten years to complete. The house represents the French Second Empire style, which was popular in America from the 1860s to 1880s. It features a double spiral staircase, elaborate gingerbread trim, and mansard roof. With meticulous attention to detail, Roth outfitted the house with windows, a doorbell, and gaslights that actually worked.
44. SIAIRT_061117_285.JPG: Keds Sneakers, around 1957: These black canvas high-tops were worn by Jon Provost, the child actor who played Timmy on the television series Lassie (1957–64). Like many young sneaker owners, Provost customized his Keds by doodling on the rubber soles with a marker. Since their invention in the early 1900s, sneakers have been a mainstay of childhood fashion, valued for their comfortable fit and sturdy construction as well as their style.
45. SIAIRT_061117_290.JPG: Baseball Card, 1952: This card, featuring New York Yankees outfielder Mickey Mantle, is from the first major set issued by the Topps Chewing Gum Company. Highly sought by collectors today, many of whom grew up watching Mantle play, it ranks as one of the most valuable cards from the post–World War II era. First produced in the late 1800s as tobacco advertisements, baseball cards became popular collectibles for fans of all ages.
46. SIAIRT_061117_293.JPG: Tin Toy, 1862: This jaunty horse-drawn carriage was presented to a little girl in Washington, D.C., during the Civil War. When wound with a key, a clockwork mechanism inside the toy turns the back wheels and sends the carriage on its way. The Connecticut manufacturer, George W. Brown & Co., was famous for producing a variety of windup tin toys during the mid-1800s.
47. SIAIRT_061117_296.JPG: John Philip Sousa's Baton, 1892–1932: America's "March King," John Philip Sousa, used this silver-tipped baton to conduct his world-famous band. A masterful composer of music to get people moving, Sousa also popularized classical music, first as leader of the U.S. Marine Band and then touring with his own Sousa Band. His stirring military marches, including "The Stars and Stripes Forever," expressed the nationalistic spirit of their times, but they have also gained an enduring appeal as part of the country's patriotic repertoire.
48. SIAIRT_061117_300.JPG: Duke Ellington Score, 1932–42: In scoring music for his famous jazz orchestra, Duke Ellington wrote for individuals, not instruments. This "Mood Indigo" page features his trombone section: Joe "Tricky Sam" Nanton, Lawrence Brown, and Juan Tizol. As a composer and bandleader, Ellington combined his players' individual sounds like an artist working from a palette. The distinctive results -- from the hot jazz of Harlem's Cotton Club to classical-inspired suites and pop standards -- earned Ellington and his band a legendary place in music history.
49. SIAIRT_061117_310.JPG: Jefferson Bible, around 1820: Near the end of his life, Thomas Jefferson clipped verses from the New Testament to create this work, The Life and Morals of Jesus of Nazareth. Reflecting Jefferson's deist beliefs, the book excludes references to miracles and focuses on Jesus' moral teachings. Known as an advocate for a "wall of separation" between church and state, Jefferson believed spirituality was a private matter. But as president, he supported the symbolic role of religion in public life through acts such as attending church services in the Capitol.
50. SIAIRT_061117_316.JPG: Retablo, around 1820: Painted by an anonymous artist in New Mexico, this Catholic devotional image depicts the Virgin Mary as Our Lady of Guadalupe. According to tradition, the Virgin of Guadalupe first appeared to Juan Diego, a Christian Indian, on a hilltop near Mexico City in 1531. His vision of a dark-haired, brown-skinned Virgin Mary was popularized by Spanish missionaries seeking to convert Indians to Christianity. Over time, Our Lady of Guadalupe became a cherished symbol of Mexican and Latin American identity.
51. SIAIRT_061117_328.JPG: Union Army Campaign Hat, 1861–65: Worn by Gen. William T. Sherman during the Civil War
52. SIAIRT_061117_336.JPG: "Fireside Chat" Microphone, 1930s: President Franklin D. Roosevelt used this National Broadcasting Company microphone was used by President Franklin D. Roosevelt to broadcast his radio addresses known as "fireside chats." Through these informal talks, delivered between 1933 and 1944, Roosevelt developed an intimate, reassuring rapport with the American people that helped build confidence in his leadership. In his first broadcast on March 12, 1933, Roosevelt explained his plan to deal with the banking crisis and asked for the public's support, concluding, "Together we cannot fail."
53. SIAIRT_061117_340.JPG: Greensboro Lunch Counter, 1960: On February 1, 1960, four African American college students protesting segregation entered a Woolworth's store in Greensboro, North Carolina, sat down at this "whites-only" lunch counter, and politely asked to be served. When their request was denied, the students refused to leave. For six months, students and supporters staged a sit-in protest and boycott of the store. In July 1960, the Woolworth's lunch counter was desegregated. A watershed event in the civil rights movement, the Greensboro sit-in led to similar protests across the South.
54. SIAIRT_061117_344.JPG: Spotsylvania Stump, 1864: A mute testimony to the horrors of war, this shattered, bullet-riddled stump is all that remains of a large oak tree caught in the crossfire during one of the most ferocious battles of the Civil War. On May 12, 1864, Union forces launched a frontal assault on the entrenched Confederate defenses around Spotsylvania Court House, Virginia. Twenty hours of intense hand-to-hand combat ensued, leaving thousands dead or wounded. The site of the worst fighting, near where this tree fell, became known as the Bloody Angle.
55. SIAIRT_061117_364.JPG: $5 Gold Coin, 1854: Made of California gold, this rare coin was one of the first produced at the U.S. Mint branch in San Francisco. The mintmark, "S," is stamped on the reverse. California gold initially had to be shipped to the U.S. Mint in Philadelphia, an expensive, slow, and risky undertaking. Meanwhile, private mints made coins that could be used in local markets. With the opening of the San Francisco Mint in 1854, gold could be converted quickly and efficiently into U.S. legal tender.
56. SIAIRT_061117_369.JPG: Gold from Sutter's Mill, 1848: On January 24, 1848, James Marshall found this tiny piece of yellow metal in the tailrace of John Sutter's sawmill in Coloma, California. When he hammered the nugget to test its malleability, it proved to be pure gold. News of Marshall's discovery triggered one of the largest gold rushes in history. Drawing fortune-seekers from across the country and around the world, the gold rush hastened California's admission to statehood in 1850 and accelerated the cultural, environmental, and economic transformation of the American West.
57. SIAIRT_061117_373.JPG: Cherokee Pistol, 1843: The inscriptions on this pistol, in English and Cherokee, identify it as the work of Salola, a blacksmith for the Oconaluftee Cherokee of western North Carolina. In 1838, 16,000 Cherokee were forced west to Oklahoma on the brutal "trail of tears" after refusing to relinquish lands in Georgia, where gold was discovered in 1829. Salola's people were among a small number of Cherokee, known today as the Eastern Band, who avoided removal and secured the right to remain in their homeland.
58. SIAIRT_061117_379.JPG: Lewis and Clark Compass, around 1804: From 1804 to 1806, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark led an expedition through the Louisiana Purchase, the western territory acquired from France in 1803. Lewis purchased this pocket compass for the expedition. Lewis and Clark's mission, assigned by President Thomas Jefferson, was to assess the land's resources, make diplomatic contact with Indians, and search for the fabled Northwest Passage, a water route to the Pacific Ocean. The party numbered more than thirty and included two French Canadian fur traders and a young Shoshone woman, Sacagawea, who served as guides and interpreters.
59. SIAIRT_061117_384.JPG: Muhammad Ali's Gloves, around 1975: Prizefighter Muhammad Ali wore these Everlast gloves while defending the second of his three world heavyweight championships. An inspiring role model to many, the charismatic and outspoken Ali also generated controversy. During the Vietnam War, the champion was stripped of his title and banned from boxing after he refused to be drafted. His objection, based on his Muslim beliefs, was ultimately upheld by the Supreme Court. In a heroic comeback, he recaptured the championship in the "Rumble in the Jungle" in Zaire against George Foreman in 1974.
60. SIAIRT_061117_389.JPG: Cesar Chavez's Union Jacket, around 1990: Famed labor activist Cesar Chavez wore this jacket. As a teenager Chavez experienced the hardships of migrant farm labor in California. The founder and president of the United Farm Workers, he brought the plight of downtrodden agricultural workers to the national consciousness through strikes, marches, boycotts, and fasts. Chavez's success in community organizing and dedication to nonviolence earned him near-mythic standing as a labor organizer and as an icon of Latino history.
61. SIAIRT_061117_391.JPG: Marilyn Monroe's Gloves, around 1960: A seductive accessory fit for a sex symbol, these kidskin evening gloves were worn by actress Marilyn Monroe. Norma Jeane Baker, discovered working in a factory, became Marilyn Monroe when she signed her first movie contract in 1946. While her screen roles emphasized beauty over brains -- most famously in Gentlemen Prefer Blondes (1953) -- Monroe at times transcended the "dumb blonde" stereotype with gifted comedic and dramatic performances. As a superstar overshadowed by a tragic personal life, she remains one of Hollywood's most alluring icons.
62. SIAIRT_061117_401.JPG: Louis Armstrong's Cornet, around 1913: Louis Armstrong received his first music lessons as a young inmate at the New Orleans Colored Waif's Home for Boys. After his release he continued to study music and reputedly received lessons on this cornet. Armstrong first came to national prominence in 1920s Chicago. Through his remarkable sense of swing and his brilliant improvisations as a trumpeter and singer, he revolutionized jazz -- transforming it from ensemble music into a soloist's art. Known for his humanitarianism, "Ambassador Satch" brought jazz to audiences around the globe.
63. SIAIRT_061117_416.JPG: Benjamin Franklin's Walking Stick, 1783: A French admirer presented this gold-capped walking stick to Benjamin Franklin while he was serving as ambassador to France. Franklin later bequeathed the cane to his friend and fellow revolutionary George Washington. A celebrated writer, inventor, scientist, and advocate for U.S. independence, Franklin rose from humble beginnings to become one of the most famous Americans of the 18th century. Through advice and example, Franklin helped define the American ideal of self-improvement through virtue and hard work.
64. SIAIRT_061117_429.JPG: Susan B. Anthony's Gavel, 1888: Presented to Susan B. Anthony when she presided over the first International Council of Women in Washington, D.C., this ivory-headed gavel features the inscription "Order is Heavens first Law."
65. SIAIRT_061117_444.JPG: Swanson TV Dinner Tray, 1955: Made of shiny aluminum with compartments for meat, vegetables, and whipped potatoes, this early TV Dinner tray symbolized a square meal for the television age. Introduced by C. A. Swanson & Sons in 1953, the frozen, precooked dinner could be heated and ready to eat in twenty-five minutes. The meals were named to emphasize their modern, convenient design -- as easy to prepare as turning on a television set. Portable and self-contained, TV Dinners also made it easier for 1950s families to combine dinner with their new favorite pastime.
66. SIAIRT_061117_451.JPG: Levi Strauss Jeans, 1875–96: Though made of brown duck rather than blue denim, these "Levi's" -- one of the oldest known pairs -- feature the familiar riveted pockets, button fly, and waistband patch of modern jeans. In 1873, San Francisco merchant Levi Strauss and tailor Jacob Davis patented a design for workers' trousers reinforced by copper rivets. Strauss manufactured the pants from cheap, sturdy fabrics, including a cotton material called "jean." Initially worn by miners and cowboys, jeans evolved into casual clothing for all ages, classes, and lifestyles.
67. SIAIRT_061117_455.JPG: Terry Box Clock, 1816: Before Eli Terry invented this simple shelf clock, only the wealthy could afford to have a timepiece in their homes. In his Connecticut factory, Terry mass-produced clocks from interchangeable wooden parts, a technique known as the "American system." Machine-made clocks added to the abundance of cheap consumer goods generated during the Industrial Revolution, and soon they became a staple of the average American household. Even those who did not know how to tell time bought clocks as decorative objects for their mantels.
68. SIAIRT_061117_464.JPG: Jacqueline Kennedy's Inaugural Gown, 1961: Jacqueline Kennedy wore this gown with matching cpe, made of silk chiffon and peau d'ange, to her husband John F. Kennedy's presidential inaugural balls. The first lady worked with Ethel Frankau of Bergdorf Goodman to design the dress. A fashion trendsetter and cultural icon, "Jackie" brought a sense of youthful glamour and sophistication to life in the White House. After President Kennedy's assassination in 1963, the dignity and courage she displayed in mourning for her husband set a calming example for a bereaved nation.
69. SIAIRT_061117_472.JPG: Edison Lightbulb, 1879: Thomas Edison used this carbon-filament bulb in the first public demonstration of his most famous invention, the first practical electric incandescent lamp, which took place at his Menlo Park, New Jersey, laboratory on New Year's Eve, 1879. As the quintessential American inventor-hero, Edison personified the ideal of the hardworking self-made man. He received a record 1,093 patents and became a skilled entrepreneur. Though occasionally unsuccessful, Edison and his team developed many practical devices in his "invention factory," and fostered faith in technological progress.
70. SIAIRT_061117_487.JPG: Kunta Kinte's Manacles, 1977: Actor LeVar Burton wore these prop manacles in the miniseries Roots (ABC, 1977), a dramatic portrayal of slavery as experienced by several generations of one family. Based on Alex Haley's autobiographical novel, Roots began with Kunta Kinte, an African youth brought to America as a slave in the 1700s, and ended with the emancipation of his descendants during the Civil War. Watched by more than 100 million people, it was a significant departure from programs that had traditionally relegated blacks to minor, stereotyped roles.
71. SIAIRT_061117_491.JPG: Archie Bunker's Chair, 1970s: The popular and controversial sitcom All in the Family (CBS, 1971–79) broke with convention and shattered taboos by depicting, in the words of creator Norman Lear, "real people dealing with real issues." Social conflicts of the day played out in the Bunkers' living room as the bigoted Archie clashed with his liberal son-in-law and his wife Edith struggled to keep the peace. With sharp but affectionate humor, the show exposed the flaws and complexities of one American family.
72. SIAIRT_061117_497.JPG: Mister Rogers's Sweater, 1970s: This red knit cardigan was worn by Fred Rogers, creator and host of the children's program, Mister Rogers' Neighborhood (PBS, 1968–2001). For more than thirty years, Rogers began each episode by changing into a sweater and tennis shoes and singing, "Won't you be my neighbor?" An ordained Presbyterian minister, Rogers dedicated his television career to promoting children's emotional and moral well-being. His show, with its friendly conversational style and trips to the Neighborhood of Make-Believe, encouraged young viewers to feel loved, respected, and special.
73. SIAIRT_061117_502.JPG: Tito Puente's Timbales, 1996: Bandleader and percussionist Tito Puente played these timbales during the closing ceremonies of the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta. Puente traditionally performed in front of the orchestra, a position that showcased his exuberant style. A native of New York's Spanish Harlem, Puente fused the Afro-Cuban rhythms of his Puerto Rican roots with jazz melodies to create sensational dance music. As one of the "mambo kings" of the 1950s, and later in collaboration with other jazz and salsa artists, he brought Latin sounds to the forefront of American popular culture.
74. SIAIRT_061117_511.JPG: J. E. B. Stuart's Pistol, 1863: Confederate Maj. Gen. J. E. B. Stuart received this English-made Tranter revolver from Maj. Heros Von Borcke, a Prussian officer who served as Stuart's chief of staff. The war's most famous cavalryman, Jeb Stuart was renowned for his gallant battle charges and daring raids on Union forces. Also a skilled intelligence officer, Stuart was commended by Gen. Robert E. Lee as the "eyes of the army." In May 1864, Stuart was mortally wounded in a battle with Gen. Philip Sheridan's cavalry at Yellow Tavern, Virginia.
75. SIAIRT_061117_514.JPG: George Washington's Uniform, 1790s: The nation's first commander in chief wore this general officer's uniform during his presidency. (George Washington's coat, waistcoat, and breeches are original; the shirt, neckcloth, and boots are reproductions.) Washington's heroic military command during the American Revolution led to his unanimous election as the first U.S. president in 1789. In fulfilling his duties under the newly ratified Constitution, he demonstrated strong and effective leadership and established a precedent for all others to follow.
76. SIAIRT_061117_530.JPG: Sunstone from Mormon Temple, 1844: Inspired by a vision described by Joseph Smith, the founder of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (the Mormons), this celestial limestone carving was one of thirty that adorned a grand temple built at Nauvoo, Illinois, in the 1840s. In 1844 an anti-Mormon mob murdered Smith, destroyed the temple, and drove the congregation out of Nauvoo. The Mormon community relocated to Utah, where it flourished in the isolation of the West.
77. SIAIRT_061117_535.JPG: "Jailed for Freedom" Pin, 1917: The National Woman's Party gave silver pins, representing a cell door with a heart-shaped padlock, to members who had been "jailed for freedom." In 1917, militant suffragists staged a months-long vigil outside the White House. Tolerated at first, the picketers drew increasing criticism after the United States entered World War I. More than ninety women were arrested for "obstructing traffic" and sent to prison, where they suffered mistreatment and waged hunger strikes. The resulting publicity helped put pressure on Congress to consider a suffrage amendment.
78. SIAIRT_061117_545.JPG: Mary Todd Lincoln's Gown, 1861–65: Worn by first lady Mary Todd Lincoln, this purple velvet gown trimmed with white satin and French lace is believed to have been made by Elizabeth Keckley, a former slave who became Lincoln's dressmaker and confidante. As first lady, Mary Lincoln had difficulty fitting into Washington society. Despite being well-educated, the Kentucky native was belittled for her "frontier" roots. By demonstrating her good taste and skills as a hostess, she hoped to prove her sophistication and advance her husband's political standing. Yet her extravagant spending on clothes, furnishings, and receptions only drew more criticism. Devastated by her husband's assassination in 1865, she struggled with depression and failing health for the rest of her life. Born into slavery, Elizabeth Keckley used her dressmaking skills to buy her freedom in 1855. She became a prominent figure in Washington's black community, organizing relief and educational programs for emancipated slaves. In 1868 she published her memoir, Behind the Scenes; or, Thirty Years a Slave, and Four Years in the White House. Mary Lincoln felt betrayed by Keckley's disclosure of private details about the Lincoln family, and the two friends never saw each other again.
79. SIAIRT_061117_546.JPG: Andrew Jackson's Uniform Coat, around 1814: Indian fighter and military leader Andrew Jackson wore this uniform jacket during his famous victory at the Battle of New Orleans on January 8, 1815. Born to a poor family in the backwoods of the Carolinas, Jackson was elected president in 1828 as a representative of the "common man." He fought against privileged wealth and helped develop the mass political-party system of today. A controversial figure, Jackson's abrasive and confrontational style defined his personal, military, and political life.
80. SIAIRT_061117_547.JPG: Patsy Cline's Costume, around 1960: Made for country music star Patsy Cline by her mother, this Western-style performance outfit features record-shaped patches stitched with the titles of Cline's singles. Cline began singing with gospel and country bands as a teenager in Virginia. With her 1957 breakout hit "Walkin' after Midnight," she became the first female country vocalist to cross over to the pop charts. In 1960, Cline achieved her childhood dream of joining the Grand Ole Opry in Nashville. Three years later, she died in a plane crash.
81. SIAIRT_061117_548.JPG: Ed Roberts's Wheelchair, around 1978: Equipped with a sports-car seat, go-cart wheels, and a top speed of eight miles an hour, this wheelchair belonged to disability-rights pioneer Ed Roberts. Roberts was paralyzed by polio in 1953, at age fourteen. In 1962 he enrolled at the University of California at Berkeley, where he led efforts to establish a program for disabled students. He later founded the Independent Living Movement, a worldwide campaign to secure civil rights, equal access, and self-sufficiency for people with disabilities.
82. SIAIRT_061117_549.JPG: Ray Charles's Sunglasses, around 2002: These Ray-Ban sunglasses were Ray Charles's celebrity trademark. Ray Charles's Tuxedo, 2002: The "father of soul music" wore this sequined tuxedo during a 2002 concert in Rome. Born into poverty and blinded by glaucoma at age seven, Ray Charles overcame great obstacles to gain worldwide acclaim as a singer, composer, and pianist. His emotive delivery and distinctive gravelly voice, together with his genius for crossing musical genres, produced many memorable hits, from rollicking soul tunes and country ballads to his celebrated rendition of "America the Beautiful."
83. SIAIRT_061117_554.JPG: Margaret Mead's Field Dress, 1920s: Worn by anthropologist Margaret Mead in Papua New Guinea, this cotton print dress has an adjustable fit to accommodate weight loss in the field. Mead's extensive fieldwork in the South Pacific established her as an expert on cultural behavior. Believing anthropology could be a tool for positive social change, she became a celebrity, speaking out on issues such as women's rights, the nuclear arms race, and the "generation gap," a term she popularized.
84. SIAIRT_061117_555.JPG: "Minerva" Dress, by Oscar de la Renta, 2002: This gilded evening dress expresses the flair for elegance, drama, and luxury that has made Oscar de la Renta one of the most acclaimed American fashion designers. Designed for the French couture firm Pierre Balmain, the ensemble features a silk top adorned with overlapping rows of gold-painted feathers and a skirt of pleated gold lamé. Alluding to its divine qualities, de la Renta named his creation after Minerva, the Roman goddess of wisdom.
85. SIAIRT_061117_559.JPG: Machine for Making Paper Bags, 1879: Margaret Knight of Springfield, Massachusetts, invented this machine for making paper bags. She patented numerous inventions, from factory machinery to household improvements, leading some to celebrate her as a "female Edison." While many women had innovative ideas, 19th-century societal norms and a legal system that favored male inventors made it difficult for women to secure patents under their own names. Knight's patent is widely celebrated because it demonstrates women's participation in the important American process of invention.
86. SIAIRT_061117_567.JPG: Howe Sewing Machine, 1846: The technical challenge of mechanizing the handcraft of sewing thwarted inventors for years. Elias Howe is credited by many with developing the first practical sewing machine in 1846, but initially the public ignored it.
87. SIAIRT_061117_568.JPG: Manuscript of A Love Supreme, by John Coltrane, 1964: A musical revelation captured on paper, this is the original sketch for John Coltrane's 33-minute jazz masterpiece, A Love Supreme. One of the most innovative and emulated saxophonists in jazz history, Coltrane communicated through his music on intellectual, emotional, and spiritual levels. A Love Supreme was inspired by a religious awakening he experienced after overcoming drug addiction. In a suite of four parts -- "Acknowledgement," "Resolution," "Pursuance," and "Psalm" -- it offers complex and impassioned reflections on prayer, faith, and the search for inner peace.
88. SIAIRT_061117_577.JPG: Tiffany Floor Lamp, around 1900: In designing his celebrated stained-glass pieces, Louis Comfort Tiffany often took inspiration from nature, and this bamboo-style lamp is a magnificent example. From the graceful bronze base molded like a stalk to the seedpod finial on top, the lamp conveys its organic motif through form, color, and texture. Artisans in Tiffany's studio carefully selected each piece of greenish-yellow glass to achieve the effect of sun-dappled leaves on the illuminated shade.
89. SIAIRT_061117_581.JPG: Gilbreth Stopwatch, 1910–20: Efficiency experts Frank and Lillian Gilbreth took time-lapse photographs and used customized watches and clocks in an attempt to find the "one best way" to do a job. The Gilbreths were pioneers of the early-20th-century movement known as scientific management. By separating "thinking" from "doing" and reducing jobs to a series of physical repetitions, scientific managers hoped to maximize efficiency, increase productivity, and boost corporate profits. Workers, however, feared they were being turned into machines.
90. SIAIRT_061117_608.JPG: Selden Automobile Patent Model, 1879: George B. Selden based his claim to be the "father of the automobile" on this conceptual model of a combustion-engine vehicle, which he designed in 1879 and patented in 1895. No individual can be credited exclusively with inventing the automobile; its design and production were shaped by many different innovations. But for fifteen years, the U.S. courts upheld Selden's claim to be the first, and other automobile manufacturers paid for the rights to use his "invention." In 1911, a lawsuit brought by Henry Ford invalidated Selden's claim.
91. SIAIRT_061117_633.JPG: Abraham Lincoln's Hat, 1865: President Lincoln wore this top hat to Ford's Theatre on April 14, 1865, the night he was assassinated by Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth. In his struggle to preserve a divided nation and extend the founding ideals of freedom and equality, Lincoln confronted the most critical and difficult challenges ever faced by an American president. Widely criticized during his presidency for his management of the Civil War, after his death Lincoln became revered as a martyr and hero who saved the Union and abolished the evil of slavery.
92. SIAIRT_061117_648.JPG: Morse-Vail Telegraph Key, 1844–45: Alfred Vail made this key, believed to be from the first American telegraph line, as an improvement on Samuel Morse's original transmitter. Vail helped Morse develop a practical system for sending and receiving coded electrical signals over a wire, which was successfully demonstrated in 1844. Morse's telegraph marked the arrival of instant long-distance communication in America. The revolutionary technology excited the public imagination, inspiring predictions that the telegraph would bring about economic prosperity, national unity, and even world peace. Telegraph Message, 1844: Printed in Morse code and transcribed by Samuel Morse himself, this message was transmitted from Baltimore to Washington, D.C., over the nation's first long-distance telegraph line. In 1843, Congress allocated $30,000 for Morse to build an electric telegraph line between Washington and Baltimore. Morse and his partner, Alfred Vail, completed the forty-mile line in May 1844. For the first transmissions, they used a quotation from the Bible, Numbers 23:23: "What hath God wrought."
93. SIAIRT_061117_656.JPG: Nylon Stockings, 1937: In the 1930s, the American chemical firm E. I. du Pont de Nemours sought to tap into the lucrative hosiery market by developing a synthetic alternative to silk. Years of testing by teams of scientists resulted in nylon, a polymer that was stronger and more durable than silk and could be applied to everything from parachutes to toothbrushes. These experimental stockings made of nylon, cotton, and silk were produced two years before DuPont unveiled its "miracle fiber" at the 1939 World's Fair.
94. SIAIRT_061201_006.JPG: Abraham Lincoln's Hat, 1865: President Lincoln wore this top hat to Ford's Theatre on April 14, 1865, the night he was assassinated by Confederate sympathizer John Wilkes Booth. In his struggle to preserve a divided nation and extend the founding ideals of freedom and equality, Lincoln confronted the most critical and difficult challenges ever faced by an American president. Widely criticized during his presidency for his management of the Civil War, after his death Lincoln became revered as a martyr and hero who saved the Union and abolished the evil of slavery.
95. SIAIRT_061201_017.JPG: Terry Box Clock, 1816: Before Eli Terry invented this simple shelf clock, only the wealthy could afford to have a timepiece in their homes. In his Connecticut factory, Terry mass-produced clocks from interchangeable wooden parts, a technique known as the "American system." Machine-made clocks added to the abundance of cheap consumer goods generated during the Industrial Revolution, and soon they became a staple of the average American household. Even those who did not know how to tell time bought clocks as decorative objects for their mantels.
96. SIAIRT_061201_023.JPG: Kodak Camera, 1888: This original Kodak camera, introduced by George Eastman, placed the power of photography in the hands of anyone who could press a button. Unlike earlier cameras that used a glass-plate negative for each exposure, the Kodak came preloaded with a 100-exposure roll of flexible film. After finishing the roll, the consumer mailed the camera back to the factory to have the prints made. In capturing everyday moments and memories, the Kodak's distinctive circular snapshots defined a new style of photography -- informal, personal, and fun.
97. SIAIRT_061201_027.JPG: Levi Strauss Jeans, 1875–96: Though made of brown duck rather than blue denim, these "Levi's" -- one of the oldest known pairs -- feature the familiar riveted pockets, button fly, and waistband patch of modern jeans. In 1873, San Francisco merchant Levi Strauss and tailor Jacob Davis patented a design for workers' trousers reinforced by copper rivets. Strauss manufactured the pants from cheap, sturdy fabrics, including a cotton material called "jean." Initially worn by miners and cowboys, jeans evolved into casual clothing for all ages, classes, and lifestyles.
98. SIAIRT_061201_031.JPG: Technicolor Camera, around 1938: In The Wizard of Oz, Dorothy's journey from Kansas to Oz is symbolized by a shift from black and white to Technicolor. This camera was one of several used to film the Oz scenes. Invented in 1932, the Technicolor camera recorded on three separate negatives -- red, blue, and green -- which were then combined to develop a full-color positive print. The box encasing the camera, a "blimp," muffled the machine's sound during filming.
99. SIAIRT_061201_036.JPG: Bell Telephone, 1876: In July 1876, Alexander Graham Bell demonstrated this experimental telephone at the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia to introduce his new invention to the world. Bell, a teacher of the deaf, drew on his studies of sound and speech to devise a method of transmitting voices over electrical wires. Unlike the telegraph, the telephone enabled people to communicate directly, without special skills or codes. First used as a business tool, after 1900 the telephone expanded into private homes and ultimately became a necessity of daily life.
100. SIAIRT_061201_046.JPG: Dorothy's Ruby Slippers, 1938: Sixteen-year-old Judy Garland wore these sequined shoes as Dorothy in The Wizard of Oz. In the original book by L. Frank Baum, Dorothy's magic slippers are silver; for the Technicolor movie, they were changed to ruby red to show up more vividly against the yellow-brick road. One of several pairs used during filming, these size-five shoes are well-worn, suggesting they were Garland's primary pair for dancing scenes.
101. SIAIRT_061201_052.JPG: $20 Pattern Coin, by Augustus Saint-Gaudens, 1907: In 1905, President Theodore Roosevelt enlisted sculptor Augustus Saint-Gaudens to beautify the nation's coinage. His $20 piece, or "double eagle," is one of the most stunning and valuable U.S. coins ever made. Featuring a majestic figure of Liberty striding out of the dawn, it transcends its monetary function as a bold and imaginative work of art. Fewer than two dozen of these extraordinary coins were minted. The ultra-high-relief design, inspired by ancient Greek coins, proved impractical to produce, so it was flattened for mass circulation.
102. SIAIRT_061201_058.JPG: "Martha Graham, Letter to the World (The Kick)," by Barbara Morgan, 1940: This striking image documents the creative collaboration of two modern women artists: photographer Barbara Morgan and pioneering choreographer Martha Graham. In a series of photographs taken over several years, Morgan sought to portray the rhythm and vitality of Graham's innovative dance performances. Among the moments she captured was this sweeping kick from Letter to the World, Graham's ballet based on the poetry of Emily Dickinson.
103. SIAIRT_061201_063.JPG: Sandra Day O'Connor's Robe, 1981: The first female justice on the U.S. Supreme Court, Sandra Day O'Connor, wore this black judicial robe to her swearing-in ceremony on September 25, 1981. Nominated by President Ronald Reagan, O'Connor developed her legal expertise as an attorney, state senator, and judge in Arizona. As a moderate conservative on the divided Rehnquist Court, she frequently cast deciding votes on controversial issues such as abortion, affirmative action, and the separation of church and state. She retired in 2005.
104. SIAIRT_061201_067.JPG: Helen Keller's Watch, around 1880: Specially designed with pins around the case edge to mark the hours, this Swiss-made "touch watch" was one of Helen Keller's prized possessions. As a baby, Keller contracted an illness that left her completely deaf and blind. After years of frustrated isolation, she met educator Annie Sullivan, who taught Keller to communicate by spelling words into her hand. Keller eventually learned to read, write, and speak, and attended Radcliffe College. Her inspiring story made her an international celebrity, and she became a prominent spokeswoman for disability rights.
105. SIAIRT_061201_072.JPG: Sample of Original Penicillium Mold, 1928: In September 1928, British bacteriologist Alexander Fleming found something unusual growing in his laboratory. Mold had contaminated a plate of Staphylococci, disease-causing bacteria. Where the mold had spread, the bacteria had disappeared. Further research revealed that the mold, Penicillium notatum, produced a substance harmful to microorganisms but relatively nontoxic to animals and humans. During World War II, British and American scientists expanded on Fleming's discovery to develop the powerful antibiotic penicillin.
106. SIAIRT_061201_081.JPG: Recombinant DNA Research Notebook, 1973: In this notebook, Stanford University professor Stanley Cohen described groundbreaking experiments that produced the first genetically engineered organisms. Together with Herbert Boyer at the University of California at San Francisco, Cohen devised a method for transferring pieces of DNA from one bacterium to another in order to replicate, or clone, particular genes. The discovery sparked excitement over the medical and commercial potential of genetic recombination as well as fears about the ethics and safety of "tinkering" with DNA.
107. SIAIRT_061201_085.JPG: R2-D2 and C-3PO, from Return of the Jedi, around 1982: Created by Star Wars filmmaker George Lucas, these two "droids" are among the most famous of all science-fiction robots. The little R2-D2 is spunky and resourceful, while his companion, the more human-looking C-3PO, is a bit of a worrywart. Of course, each of these robots was really a costume with an actor inside. Human-like robots have long been a staple of popular culture, depicted in both positive and menacing ways. In reality, while engineers have made great strides in practical robotics and artificial intelligence, real robots seldom appear in human form.
108. SIAIRT_061201_089.JPG: Liotta-Cooley Artificial Heart, 1969: The first total artificial heart implanted in a human, this device was developed by Domingo Liotta and implanted by surgeon Denton Cooley on April 4, 1969, at St. Luke's Episcopal Hospital in Houston. The recipient, Haskell Karp, lived for sixty-four hours with the artificial heart until a human heart was available for transplant. Although Karp died soon after receiving a real heart, the procedure demonstrated the viability of artificial hearts as a bridge to transplant in cardiac patients. However, some criticized the surgery as unethical because it was performed without formal review by the medical community.
109. SIAIRT_061201_094.JPG: Cesar Chavez's Union Jacket, around 1990: Famed labor activist Cesar Chavez wore this jacket. As a teenager Chavez experienced the hardships of migrant farm labor in California. The founder and president of the United Farm Workers, he brought the plight of downtrodden agricultural workers to the national consciousness through strikes, marches, boycotts, and fasts. Chavez's success in community organizing and dedication to nonviolence earned him near-mythic standing as a labor organizer and as an icon of Latino history.
110. SIAIRT_061201_097.JPG: Photographs by Richard Avedon: One of the 20th century's most influential photographers, Richard Avedon created striking portraits of authors, civic leaders, performers, and cultural icons from the 1950s until his death in 2004. Avedon learned the mechanics of photography in the U.S. Merchant Marine while taking thousands of identification pictures. In 1945 Harper's Bazaar hired him as a staff photographer. His distinctive fashion and advertising images captivated audiences, but his portraits with stark white backgrounds are among his most memorable works. Marian Anderson, 1955: One of the greatest opera singers of her time, Marian Anderson (1897–1993) spent her entire career battling and breaking racial barriers. In 1939, she gave a legendary performance on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial after the Daughters of the American Revolution banned her from performing at Constitution Hall in Washington, D.C. Avedon photographed the famed contralto at the time of her debut at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York, where she was the first African American to perform as a regular company member. Malcolm X, 1963: Malcolm X (1925–1965) rose to fame as a leading figure of the separatist Nation of Islam. A militant proponent of black self-reliance, he urged African Americans to unite against white oppression and secure their rights "by any means necessary." In 1964, he made the pilgrimage to Mecca, where he experienced religious brotherhood that transcended race. In 1965, shortly after he had broken away from the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X was assassinated. Avedon used camera movement to evoke the emotional energy of his subject. Dwight D. Eisenhower, 1964: Having demonstrated his leadership as Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces during World War II, Dwight Eisenhower (1890–1969) was elected U.S. president in 1952. With his amiable nature -- immortalized by the campaign slogan "I like Ike" -- he projected a sense of optimism in a time of great challenges, from escalating cold war tensions, the Korean War, and McCarthyism to labor unrest and school desegregation. Avedon's portrait, from a collection titled Nothing Personal, depicted the aged ex-president without his famous smile. Billy Graham, 1964: The charismatic evangelist Billy Graham (b. 1918) began preaching in 1938. His national standing grew through tent revivals, radio, and later television broadcasts. He has served as spiritual advisor to many U.S. presidents, from Dwight Eisenhower to George W. Bush. Through his far-reaching crusades, Graham has inspired millions with the evangelical message of salvation through faith rather than good works alone. Avedon included this unsparing portrait of the world-famous minister in Nothing Personal, a critical look at American society in the mid-1960s.
111. SIAIRT_061201_102.JPG: Jar Made by "Dave," 1862: Inscribed by its maker, a slave potter, the poem on this jar reads, "I made this Jar all of cross / If you dont repent, you will be lost." A few slaves gained a measure of independence. David Drake, or "Dave," as he signed his pieces, worked at the Lewis Miles plantation in Edgefield, South Carolina. In a state that outlawed literacy among slaves, Dave defiantly proclaimed his ability to read and write by signing his name and sometimes inscribing poetry on the stoneware vessels he made.
112. SIAIRT_061201_105.JPG: Slave Tag, 1833: In the early 19th century, the city of Charleston, South Carolina, required slaves to wear identifying tags like this one, marked "Servant." Considered property, slaves did not always work for their owners but were sometimes rented out. In a few areas, hired slaves were forced to wear badges lest they be confused with free blacks.
113. SIAIRT_061201_110.JPG: Cotton Gin Model, around 1796: In 1794, Eli Whitney patented a new kind of cotton gin. His invention, using rotating brushes and teeth to remove the seeds from cotton, was quickly copied and improved by others. Southern plantation owners depended on slaves for labor-intensive crops such as rice, sugar, tobacco, and especially cotton. As the market demand for cotton increased in the early 1800s, the Southern cotton industry expanded dramatically, as did the system of slave labor it relied on.
114. SIAIRT_061201_115.JPG: George Washington's Uniform, 1790s: The nation's first commander in chief wore this general officer's uniform during his presidency. (George Washington's coat, waistcoat, and breeches are original; the shirt, neckcloth, and boots are reproductions.) Washington's heroic military command during the American Revolution led to his unanimous election as the first U.S. president in 1789. In fulfilling his duties under the newly ratified Constitution, he demonstrated strong and effective leadership and established a precedent for all others to follow.
115. SIAIRT_061201_122.JPG: Lincoln's Henry Rifle, around 1862: The New Haven (Conn.) Arms Company presented this engraved, gold-mounted Henry rifle to President Abraham Lincoln in hopes that he would endorse the innovative firearm for use by the Union army. Designed by B. Tyler Henry, the .44-caliber, lever-action, repeating rifle fired up to seven times faster than single-shot muskets. Despite its technological advantages, it was deemed too heavy and damage-prone for regular battlefield use. After the Civil War, the Henry rifle was redesigned to create the famous 1866 Winchester rifle.
116. SIAIRT_061201_129.JPG: Emergency Money, 1933: When the nation's banks closed during the Depression, Leiter's Pharmacy in Pismo Beach, California, issued this clamshell as change. The 1929 stock market crash triggered banking panics, as people rushed to withdraw their savings before they were lost. In March 1933, President Roosevelt ordered a four-day bank holiday to prevent further runs. To compensate for the currency shortage, communities created emergency money, or scrip. This clamshell was signed as it changed hands and redeemed when cash became available again.
117. SIAIRT_061201_142.JPG: Internment Camp Sign, 1942–45: This sign identified the barracks residence of Michibiku Ozamoto, a Japanese American interned at Manzanar, California, during World War II. On February 19, 1942, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066, authorizing the internment of people of Japanese descent in the interest of national security. Almost 120,000 men, women, and children, the majority of them U.S. citizens, were forced from their homes into detention camps. In 1988, Congress formally apologized for this violation of civil rights and paid restitution to surviving internees.
118. SIAIRT_061201_154.JPG: ERA Charm Bracelet, 1972: In 1972, Congress passed the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which would guarantee men and women equal rights under state and federal law, and sent it to the states for ratification. This bracelet, representing eleven of the thirty-five states that ratified the ERA, was worn by Alice Paul, who drafted the original amendment in 1923. From 1972 to 1982, supporters campaigned to get the required thirty-eight states to ratify the amendment. But the effort was opposed and ultimately defeated by those who feared the ERA's moral and legal impact on American society.
119. SIAIRT_061201_162.JPG: Gold from Sutter's Mill, 1848: On January 24, 1848, James Marshall found this tiny piece of yellow metal in the tailrace of John Sutter's sawmill in Coloma, California. When he hammered the nugget to test its malleability, it proved to be pure gold. News of Marshall's discovery triggered one of the largest gold rushes in history. Drawing fortune-seekers from across the country and around the world, the gold rush hastened California's admission to statehood in 1850 and accelerated the cultural, environmental, and economic transformation of the American West.
120. SIAIRT_061201_169.JPG: Census Jug, around 1790: Made in England for the American market, this creamware jug commemorates the first census of the United States taken in 1790. The Constitution, adopted in 1787, mandated that the population of the states be counted every ten years to ensure proper representation in Congress. The first census, undertaken by U.S. marshals on horseback, recorded 3.9 million inhabitants in these categories: heads of families, free white males sixteen and older, free white males younger than sixteen, free white females, all other free persons (by sex and color), and slaves.
121. SIAIRT_061201_178.JPG: Antislavery Medallion, around 1787: English ceramic manufacturer Josiah Wedgwood was also an active abolitionist. In 1787 he designed this jasperware cameo, featuring a kneeling slave and the motto "Am I not a man and a brother?" Distributed in both England and the United States, the medallions helped popularize the abolitionist cause. Benjamin Franklin, president of the first American antislavery society, wrote to Wedgwood: "I am persuaded [the medallion] may have an Effect equal to that of the best written Pamphlet in procuring favour to those oppressed people."
122. SIAIRT_061201_186.JPG: "Cheesehead" Hat, 1996: Worn by Patricia Hawley, Wisconsin delegate to the Democratic National Convention
123. SIAIRT_061201_192.JPG: Table by Peter Glass, around 1860: Inlaid with more than thirty thousand pieces of wood, this tilt-top center table was created by German immigrant Peter Glass. As a farmer in Wisconsin, Glass applied his native training as a marquetry craftsman to make award-winning furniture in his spare time. The elaborate octagonal tabletop combines traditional European designs with patriotic American motifs, including portraits of U.S. military generals. In eight oval plaques encircling the piece, Glass also portrayed himself: "Peter/Glass/Maker/Town/Scott /Wisconsin/U.S. of/America."
124. SIAIRT_061201_194.JPG: Archie Bunker's Chair, 1970s: The popular and controversial sitcom All in the Family (CBS, 1971–79) broke with convention and shattered taboos by depicting, in the words of creator Norman Lear, "real people dealing with real issues." Social conflicts of the day played out in the Bunkers' living room as the bigoted Archie clashed with his liberal son-in-law and his wife Edith struggled to keep the peace. With sharp but affectionate humor, the show exposed the flaws and complexities of one American family.
125. SIAIRT_061201_198.JPG: M*A*S*H Signpost, 1970s: Pointing the way to anyplace but here, this prop from M*A*S*H (CBS, 1972–83) reflects the characters' humorous efforts to cope with the horrors of war. The show, set in an army field hospital during the Korean War, debuted in the final years of the Vietnam War, and its antiwar theme resonated with many Americans. Its talented ensemble cast and compelling storylines earned M*A*S*H lasting popularity. The final program, broadcast on February 28, 1983, was the most-watched series episode in television history.
126. SIAIRT_061201_200.JPG: Irving Berlin's Piano, 1940: Custom-made for songwriter Irving Berlin, this transposing upright piano can be played in any key using any notes. Berlin used it to write his 1942 hit "White Christmas," one of the top-selling songs of all time. Berlin published nearly a thousand songs, from Tin Pan Alley sheet music to Broadway show tunes and the patriotic anthem "God Bless America." A Russian Jewish immigrant, he adopted a "melting-pot" style, drawing from ragtime, blues, ballads, and other genres to produce a commercially popular and uniquely American sound.
127. SIAIRT_061201_201.JPG: Dizzy Gillespie's Trumpet, 1972: Modern-jazz virtuoso Dizzy Gillespie played this customized King "Silver Flair" trumpet from 1972 to 1985. He adopted the signature angled design in 1954, after someone accidentally bent his horn and he discovered he liked the sound that resulted. In the 1940s, Gillespie helped develop an innovative style known as "bebop," or "bop," which marked the birth of modern jazz. Featuring intricate improvisations, complex harmonies, and rapid rhythms, bebop reflected a desire among African American artists to reclaim jazz from the commercial mainstream and elevate it from dance music to a sophisticated art form.
128. SIAIRT_061201_212.JPG: Bradford Cup, 1634: This silver wine cup belonged to Pilgrim leader and Mayflower passenger William Bradford, who governed Plymouth Colony for thirty years. Made for Bradford in London, the cup bears his initials on one side. The idea of America as a religious refuge originates with the Pilgrims, a group of English separatists who founded a colony at Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1620. While the Pilgrims sought freedom to practice their own form of Protestantism, they did not tolerate other kinds of worship.
129. SIAIRT_061201_217.JPG: Torah Mantle, 1785–86: Made in Wenkheim, Germany, this silk Torah mantle was brought to San Francisco by Jewish immigrants during the California gold rush and presented to Congregation Emanu-El. Founded in 1850, Emanu-El (Hebrew for "God is with us") was one of the first synagogues in San Francisco. It provided a spiritual and social community for German and central European Jews who came to California in search of economic opportunities and political freedom.
130. SIAIRT_061201_237.JPG: Spotsylvania Stump, 1864: A mute testimony to the horrors of war, this shattered, bullet-riddled stump is all that remains of a large oak tree caught in the crossfire during one of the most ferocious battles of the Civil War. On May 12, 1864, Union forces launched a frontal assault on the entrenched Confederate defenses around Spotsylvania Court House, Virginia. Twenty hours of intense hand-to-hand combat ensued, leaving thousands dead or wounded. The site of the worst fighting, near where this tree fell, became known as the Bloody Angle.
131. SIAIRT_061201_240.JPG: Greensboro Lunch Counter, 1960: On February 1, 1960, four African American college students protesting segregation entered a Woolworth's store in Greensboro, North Carolina, sat down at this "whites-only" lunch counter, and politely asked to be served. When their request was denied, the students refused to leave. For six months, students and supporters staged a sit-in protest and boycott of the store. In July 1960, the Woolworth's lunch counter was desegregated. A watershed event in the civil rights movement, the Greensboro sit-in led to similar protests across the South.
132. SIAIRT_061201_247.JPG: Butsudan, 1942–45: Made in a Japanese American internment camp in Poston, Arizona, during World War II, this butsudan, or Buddhist home shrine, provided a comforting connection to faith in a time of crisis. Despite the freedom of worship guaranteed by the Constitution, many religious minorities have endured prejudice and persecution from mainstream Christian society. During World War II, Japanese American Buddhists were pressured to abandon their religion and convert to Christianity to prove their loyalty to the United States.
133. SIAIRT_061201_251.JPG: Sampler, 1765: Ten-year-old Esther Copp of Stonington, Connecticut, embroidered this decorative linen sampler to demonstrate her sewing skills. The design includes alphabets and numbers, flowery motifs, and a proverb from the Bible: "Better it is to be of an humble Spirit with the lowly than to divide the Spoil with the proud." For young girls in early America, needlework was not a hobby but a necessary skill they were expected to master along with other domestic duties.
134. SIAIRT_061201_255.JPG: Baby Bonnet, around 1920: Ng Shee Lee, a Chinese immigrant living in New York's Chinatown, made this silk bonnet for her American-born son Peter. Caps like this one are traditionally worn by Chinese boys after their first birthday. With its furry ears, the bonnet is meant to resemble the head of a dog, a disguise to protect the child from evil spirits.
135. SIAIRT_061201_260.JPG: Kunta Kinte's Manacles, 1977: Actor LeVar Burton wore these prop manacles in the miniseries Roots (ABC, 1977), a dramatic portrayal of slavery as experienced by several generations of one family. Based on Alex Haley's autobiographical novel, Roots began with Kunta Kinte, an African youth brought to America as a slave in the 1700s, and ended with the emancipation of his descendants during the Civil War. Watched by more than 100 million people, it was a significant departure from programs that had traditionally relegated blacks to minor, stereotyped roles.
136. SIAIRT_061201_266.JPG: Hurricane Katrina signs
137. SIAIRT_061201_271.JPG: Bible Quilt, around 1885: The work of Harriet Powers, this renowned quilt depicts eleven stories from the Bible, including Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden, the murder of Abel by Cain, the crucifixion of Jesus, and the Last Supper. Powers was born a slave in Georgia in 1837. Like many enslaved African Americans, she infused the practice of Christianity with expressions of her cultural roots. Her Bible quilt features appliqué figures similar to those found on west-African textiles.
138. SIAIRT_061201_275.JPG: "We Can Do It!" 1942: Artist J. Howard Miller produced this work-incentive poster for the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company. Though displayed only briefly in Westinghouse factories, the poster has become one of the most famous icons of World War II. As women were encouraged to take wartime jobs in defense industries, Rosie the Riveter became a celebrated symbol of female patriotism. Yet when the war ended, many industries forced women to relinquish their skilled jobs to returning veterans.
139. SIAIRT_061201_278.JPG: Gardner's Photographic Sketch Book of the War, 1866: The first published collection of Civil War photographs, this two-volume set features the work of Alexander Gardner and ten other photographers who traveled to camps, forts, and battlefields to document the four-year conflict. In the 1860s, photo-illustrated books were expensive and painstaking to produce. Each volume of Gardner's Sketch Book contains fifty original albumen prints, mounted on boards and bound together with the accompanying text. Because of low public demand, only about 200 sets were printed, making this a rare treasure of American photographic history.
140. SIAIRT_061201_285.JPG: Appomattox Chairs, 1865: On April 9, 1865, Gen. Robert E. Lee formally surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia to Gen. Ulysses S. Grant. Coming just days after the fall of Richmond, the Confederate capital, this event effectively brought the Civil War to an end. The two generals met at a private home in Appomattox Court House, Virginia, and sat in these chairs -- Lee in the high-backed cane chair, Grant in the leather-backed one -- as they finalized the terms of Lee's surrender.
141. SIAIRT_061201_286.JPG: Appomattox Chairs, 1865: On April 9, 1865, Gen. Robert E. Lee formally surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia to Gen. Ulysses S. Grant. Coming just days after the fall of Richmond, the Confederate capital, this event effectively brought the Civil War to an end. The two generals met at a private home in Appomattox Court House, Virginia, and sat in these chairs -- Lee in the high-backed cane chair, Grant in the leather-backed one -- as they finalized the terms of Lee's surrender.
142. SIAIRT_061201_288.JPG: J. E. B. Stuart's Pistol, 1863: Confederate Maj. Gen. J. E. B. Stuart received this English-made Tranter revolver from Maj. Heros Von Borcke, a Prussian officer who served as Stuart's chief of staff. The war's most famous cavalryman, Jeb Stuart was renowned for his gallant battle charges and daring raids on Union forces. Also a skilled intelligence officer, Stuart was commended by Gen. Robert E. Lee as the "eyes of the army." In May 1864, Stuart was mortally wounded in a battle with Gen. Philip Sheridan's cavalry at Yellow Tavern, Virginia.
143. SIAIRT_061201_289.JPG: Draisine (Early Bicycle), around 1818: One of the oldest surviving ancestors of the modern bicycle, this wooden two-wheeler is named for its German inventor, Baron Karl von Drais. Also known as a velocipede or hobbyhorse, the draisine enjoyed brief popularity in Europe and the United States during the 1810s and 1820s. To propel the machine, riders pushed along the ground with their feet. In 1863 a new invention, the pedal, helped transform the bicycle into a more practical and widespread mode of transportation.
144. SIAIRT_061201_290.JPG: Nylon Stockings, 1937: In the 1930s, the American chemical firm E. I. du Pont de Nemours sought to tap into the lucrative hosiery market by developing a synthetic alternative to silk. Years of testing by teams of scientists resulted in nylon, a polymer that was stronger and more durable than silk and could be applied to everything from parachutes to toothbrushes. These experimental stockings made of nylon, cotton, and silk were produced two years before DuPont unveiled its "miracle fiber" at the 1939 World's Fair.
145. SIAIRT_061201_292.JPG: Berliner Gramophone Record, 1898: In 1887, Emile Berliner patented his disk-playing gramophone. It was a revolutionary improvement over Thomas Edison's 1877 phonograph, which played cylinders. The disk format, cheap and easy to mass-produce, helped transform the talking machine from experimental novelty into commercial success. This early record is made of rubber, which Berliner used before settling on shellac as his material of choice. Today's audio CDs are essentially digital versions of Berliner's original gramophone record, with encoded "grooves" read by laser instead of needle.
146. SIAIRT_061201_295.JPG: Victorian House Model, 1876: A masterpiece of craftsmanship, this ornate model was built by Leonard Roth, a Philadelphia shoemaker, and took ten years to complete. The house represents the French Second Empire style, which was popular in America from the 1860s to 1880s. It features a double spiral staircase, elaborate gingerbread trim, and mansard roof. With meticulous attention to detail, Roth outfitted the house with windows, a doorbell, and gaslights that actually worked.
147. SIAIRT_061201_296.JPG: Miss America's Crown, 1951: Worn by Yolande Betbeze
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